What is enamel, please describe

Origin of the name

Enamel, also known as "folang" and "falan", is a phonetic translation of a foreign word. The word "enamel" originates from the ancient western region of China during the Sui and Tang dynasties. At that time, the Eastern Roman Empire and the Mediterranean coast of West Asia made enamel inlaid glaze crafts called Whisker inlaid or Fran inlaid, Franji, simplified to Whisker. After the emergence of cloisonné transcription for hair blue, and later enamel. 1918 ~ 1956, enamel and enamel synonymous with the use of China in 1956 to develop standards for enamel products, enamel was changed to enamel, as a synonym for art enamel.

In ancient China, as enamelware was originally produced from the country of Daesu (Daesu was the general name given to the Arab countries in China during the Tang and Song dynasties. Originated from the transliteration of the Persian word for Arabs as Tazi. There was the White Tazi (661-749), with Damascus, Syria as its capital, known as the Umayyad Dynasty; there was the Black Tazi (749-1158), with Baghdad as its capital, known as the Abbasid Dynasty; after 910 there was the Fatimid Dynasty, with Cairo as its capital; and the Abbasids were followed by the Seljuk Dynasty (1158-1258)). The name of the kiln came from the Abbasids and then from the Seljuks (1158-1258), so it was called the "Kiln of the Eater and the Kiln of the Demon Kingdom. Afterwards, although the name was not uniformly translated, there were many different ways of writing the name, such as "Falang Nai", "Oniguni Nai", "Falan", "Falan "," Whiskering "," Franco "," Furlong "," etc., but the pronunciation is basically the same, and is now basically unified as" Enamel".

Composition

The basic composition of enamel is quartz, feldspar, borax and fluoride, and ceramic glaze, glaze, glass (material) with the same class of silicate substances. Ancient Chinese custom will be attached to the surface of the pottery or porcelain tires called "glaze"; attached to the building tiles called "glaze"; and attached to the surface of the metal is called "enamel".

Metal enamelware classification

Metal enamelware is based on the specific processing technology in the production process, can be divided into several varieties of filigree enamelware, burin enamelware, painting enamelware and transparent enamelware.

There are two main types of enamelware, one is the copper enamel from Persia, around the time of the Mongol Yuan to China, the Ming Dynasty began to burn a large number of, and reached a peak during the Jingtai years, the later generations called it "cloisonné". Since then, cloisonné has become a synonym for copper enamelware. The other is the enameling process from Europe, which was introduced to China during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

Specifically, filigree enamel was most common in the Ming Jingtai and Chenghua dynasties, after which the level of craftsmanship declined significantly. Cloisonné craft of the Qing Dynasty tire thin, pinch fine, colored glaze is also more bright than the Ming Dynasty. Complex and diverse patterns. Qianlong period products can not be compared with the period of jingtai, chenghua, but compared to hongzhi, Zhengde after the product is by no means inferior. early 20th century, cloisonné overall production level is not as good as the previous generation, thin body, bright colors have floating, workmanship is coarse. At this time, only the "God's sake", "De Xing Cheng" production of cloisonné fine workmanship, good quality.

Painted enamel technology since the introduction of China, in the Kangxi, Yong, Qian three dynasties to develop, the three dynasties works in the shape, glaze, decoration, payment and so on have their own characteristics. Kangxi period of painting enamel ware glaze color bright and clean, decorated with sketches of flowers and patterns of flowers. Yongzheng years of painting enamel ware type production neat, black glaze glossy bright, more than the Kang, Qian dynasty. Qianlong years of painting enamel ware decoration tends to "dense", "detailed" pile type, more of the Chinese and Western decorative way, the process of painting enamel and filling enamel, silk enamel and other combinations of phenomena.

Collection

Enamel ware as a collection of art in a category, also attracted the majority of collection of enthusiasts, the collection of objects to cloisonné majority. We refer to the cloisonné collection refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the late Qing Dynasty before the handmade, complex cloisonné, when cloisonné craftsmanship of each process have high requirements. In addition, ten years after the catastrophe, the domestic survival of folk cloisonné before the late Qing Dynasty almost disappeared. Scarce survival and broad market demand formed a clear contrast and value-added space. And today's market cloisonné ware and the contemporaneous Jingdezhen official kiln porcelain compared, the price is much lower, so its appreciation potential is relatively greater.

The production of enamel craft classification

The production of enamel craft is categorized into many, people generally according to the production method and the type of tire ground will be divided into two categories.

1. According to the production method can be roughly divided into silk enamel, filling enamel (i.e. embedded enamel), painting enamel and so on.

Choke enamel and inlaid enamel appeared in the country for a long time, historical records can be traced back to the Song and Yuan dynasties, but the real production in the country should be the Yuan Dynasty Genghis Khan attacked the Great Eclipse, the artisans of the place captured back to the production, and will be the technology into the Central Plains. To the ming dynasty, yongxuan court began to widely used in the production of silk enamel, after the jingtai period of the most famous, that is, people commonly known as "cloisonné". Painted enamel appeared later, in the middle of the fifteenth century in Europe, invented in Flanders, the end of the fifteenth century in the west-central France Rimoju within the addition of the enamel process as the basis for the development of the town of painted enamel. With the trade exchanges between China and the West, it was introduced into the country from Guangzhou and other ports. At that time, it was called "Western enamel" or "foreign enamel". Qing dynasty palace enamel production in the thirty-second year of the Kangxi, enamel and glass factory was established to start research and production, development.

2. According to the type of tire, enamel can generally be divided into gold enamel, copper enamel, porcelain enamel, glass enamel, alabaster enamel and so on.

Among them, copper enamel is the most widely used because it is easy to combine copper and surface enamel, and the price of copper is relatively easy to accept, so copper enamel is the most widely used. Today, most enameled wares still use copper tires. Gold enamel is too expensive and difficult to be accepted by the general public, so it was basically used only in the Inner House during the Qing Dynasty, and the quantity was extremely limited. Porcelain enamel (that is, enameled porcelain), as the name suggests, is painted on porcelain enamel. It is the perfect combination of porcelain and enamel production process, the production requirements of the two are very high, so the start and maturity of the time is late. Palace Office in the production of porcelain enamel porcelain, but also the production of glass tire enamel, alabaster tire enamel, the three production time should be roughly the same, just alabaster tire products (only refers to the palace enamel) only see the Kangxi products, Yongqian do not see the production of information.

Kangxi enamel porcelain production

1. production facilities

To make painting enamel ware in the palace, the first to have production facilities - enamel work. Kangxi period of enamel for the main enamel for the Hall of Wuying (abolished in the 57th year of the Kangxi period), the Hall of Yangxintang enamel for the Yuanmingyuan enamel, due to the lack of the "Qing Household Office of the Office of the creation of the various made to do the work of the record" information, the scale of the production can not be proved for the time being.

2. Historical information

Earlier Kangxi painting enamel historical information is: "fifty-five years on September 11: Guangxi governor Chen Yuanlong (Chen Yuanlong (1652 - 1736), the word Guangling, the number of Qianzhai, the world called Guangling Xiangguo, also known as Haining Xiangguo, the Qing dynasty Xiangguo (prime minister), the Qing dynasty Xiangguo (prime minister), the Qing dynasty Xiangguo (prime minister), the Qing dynasty Xiangguo (prime minister), the Qing dynasty Xiangguo (prime minister). Qing Dynasty, also known as the prime minister of the pavilion.) The emperor gave 'an imperial gift of enameled five-color red glass snuff bottle', Chen Yuanlong 'profligate'." It is known that at least in the fifty-fifth year of the Kangxi period, the Office has produced a glass enamel, and used it to reward the ministers.

Kangxi fifty-five years, September 28, Guangdong governor Yang Lin on the folders: "Guangdong people Pan Chun can burn French blue objects, I have been folded by the slave to report, and now found that there are able to burn French blue Yang Shiqi a, inspection of its skills, compared to Pan Chun, can also help Pan Chun manufacturing. I also donated money for his family's settlement on September 26th. ...... The two French blue-colored craftsmen, two apprentices, all with Wulin Da, Li Bingzhong started to go to the capital and finished. Furthermore, I have found a French blue watch, diamond ring, French blue copper painting, instruments, foreign French blue material, and Pan Chun made French peach red color gold mixed with red copper material, etc., to Li Bingzhong on behalf of the entry. There are still some gold cups that have not yet been painted or burned, and they have been handed over to Li Bingzhong to prepare for the test test test."

The character "Pan Chun" is described in "Guangzhou City Records. The city's arts and crafts industry is described in the Guangzhou Municipal Records. The fourth chapter of the gold-colored porcelain industry" has mentioned the person: "(Guangcai) in the mid- to late 17th century, most of the use of five-color red (dry red), hemp (red and black with deep ochre), black, gold and enamel moon white, yellow, pink and green and so on nine kinds of pigments. Later Pan Chun developed peach red (gold red), enriched the color of enamel."

It should be mentioned here that because Guangzhou is the only open door in the Qing Dynasty, many foreigners have entered our country, thus resulting in a high level of enameling in Guangzhou, which is very important in the country. Most of the enameling craftsmen in the Palace Office were selected by the Guangdong Customs, known as the "Southern Craftsmen". And in the late Qianlong period, the Palace Manufacturing Office stopped making enameled porcelain, this place became the enameled porcelain production point, still making enameled porcelain.

From the Kangxi enamel production data, fifty-five years after the more relevant information to speculate, it is likely that the period of painting enamel production is more mature. In June of the 57th year of the Kangxi reign, Zuo Shiyong, the governor of Guangxi, was given an enameled snuff bottle, which he described as "unparalleled in its craftsmanship and magnificent in its beauty".

On June 24, 58th year of the Kangxi reign, Yang Lin, the governor of the two provinces, mentioned in a memorial that he sent the enameler Chen Zhongxin to the palace. "May 12 of this year to have the law blue west medical surgery a An Tai, but also will burn painting enamel technology a Chen Zhongxin. Slave industry together with the governor of the public folding heard, on June 18, sent to Beijing accompanied on the case. ......."

The real mention of porcelain enamel solid historical information can be referred to: the second day of February in the fifty-ninth year of the Kangxi emperor, Cao Fu (Cao Yin's son) folders within the Zhu batch, Oracle Cao Yin: "Recently, your family errand is very much, such as enamel magnets and so on, first there is a number of pieces of the will, after the Beijing, sent to the Imperial Palace before the end of reading before burned. Today I do not know how much magnetism cheated, I always do not know ... ...". Kangxi period, due to the production of painted enamel is not mature, therefore, painted enamel can not be in the porcelain tire glaze directly on the glaze, but applied to the surface of the plain tire. At that time, enameled porcelain tires had to be made in Jingdezhen (except for the occasional use of the old Yongle tires), from the Fuliang (i.e., Jingdezhen, because the bridge is often referred to as "Fuliang") Changjiang River downstream, into Poyang Lake, through the Jiujiang Pass, through the Jiangning Prefecture (Nanjing), and then along the Grand Canal northward to the capital. Cao Yin's ancestors were all servants of Xuan Ye's family, and at that time, many important posts of weaving and customs were managed by the rulers who appointed their own servants. Cao family three generations in Jiangning weaving, and good porcelain, may be involved in the matter of imperial factory enamel tires, leading to Kangxi reprimand.

According to historical sources: "Kangxi fifty-nine years on the fifth day of the twelfth month: the Kangxi Emperor gave the Western envoys Jialan, enamel bowl two and others." The bowl corroborating information is also not seen to remain.

3. Kangxi enamel porcelain tire

Kangxi period of porcelain enamel painting until the end of the production is still not mature, the main reason should be related to the production of enamel painting technology, such as the above mentioned fifty-five years into the capital of Pan Chun, fifty-eight years into the capital of the Chen Zhongxin, although they can burn enamel, but only refers to the copper, glass tires, enamel on porcelain is still the first in the palace, no other precedent. Therefore, the period of technology, painting enamel can be painted in alabaster (Figure 1, 2), copper tire, glass tire, difficult to attach the glaze on porcelain success. Alabaster tire is similar to the porcelain surface, and enamel glaze is theoretically more reasonable, so the Kangxi period of porcelain enamel painting basic "glazed outside the unglazed" porcelain tires. If you look at the Kangxi dynasty enameled porcelain, will find that in addition to magnetic tire enamel diamond plate (Figure 3), no longer see the painting enamel directly on the glaze (the use of Yongle porcelain, the surface of the original with glaze).

Kangxi period "imperial" and "year" the difference between the use of paragraph

Kangxi official kiln porcelain early because of the production of Imperial porcelain is not ideal and do not fall Kangxi paragraph, until the production of a certain level only began to fall! "system" paragraph. From the extant Kangxi official kiln porcelain, "the annual" paragraph is made by the Ministry of Industry in Jingdezhen Imperial factory production of official kiln porcelain, basically belongs to the "Department of limitations" porcelain, the use of this type of porcelain wider, including the Palace daily, ornamental, bounty, and so on. The "imperial" paragraph is limited to the Palace Office of the production of painted enamel (including copper, glass, alabaster tire). Comparison from the existing products to find, even if the Palace Office of the production of pinched silk enamel also use the "system" paragraph (ware 9), but not fall "imperial" paragraph. Made by the Office of the porcelain enamel painting and the imperial factory production of the official kiln porcelain, compared with the former difficult, high cost, relatively precious. Especially enamel painting enamel belongs to the emerging technology, with the Ming dynasty began to produce silk enamel, compared to the existence of a certain sense of superiority. Therefore, it can be seen: drop "imperial" paragraph artifacts are clearly superior to the production level of the "annual" paragraph, the use of level than the "annual" paragraph high (only for the Kangxi dynasty).

Kangxi enameled porcelain type

Because the Kangxi period is still a porcelain enameling research and production period, so the Kangxi porcelain enameling modeling is relatively small. Now known Kangxi porcelain enamel painting ware:

1. diamond plate (Yongle kiln, the example of ware 3);

2. bowl (basically with "glazed outside the glaze" porcelain, type of ware 4, 5, 8, etc.);

2. bowl (basically with "glazed outside the glaze" porcelain, type of ware 4, 5, 8, etc.).

3. cups (ware 6);

4. small lidded boxes and others.

Summary

As the Kangxi period is the infancy of the Qing dynasty enameled porcelain, whether in the color glaze, shape, or production technology, there are great limitations, so the Kangxi enameled porcelain types compared with Yongqian are slightly monotonous.

Enamel ware identification

Enamel ware identification mainly has three ways, one is the literature and historical evidence; the second is the scientific means of detection; the third is through the comparison of the style of the times to identify. The first two methods are more complicated, commonly used is the third. Comparison of the era style identification generally focus on the examination of paragraph, tire bone and type system, decorative patterns and enamel glaze and so on several aspects.

1. recognition

The existing Ming and Qing dynasty two silk enamel ware recognition form is summarized, roughly cast burin, silk and engraved three kinds. Ming Xuande period of enameled ware in the form of paragraph cast burin paragraph, double hook paragraph, and enamel firing three kinds of enamel. The style of the mark is in regular script and seal script, with regular script accounting for the majority. The number of characters is "Xuande nian zhi", "Xuande nian zhi" (four-character mark), and "Daming Xuande nian zhi" (six-character mark). The form of arrangement of the mark is straight single line, straight double line, straight three lines and horizontal rows. The position of the mark in this period, some in the bottom of the vessel, but also some engraved in the vessel's mouth, cover edge or inside the edge of the place. The inscription style is solemn and elegant, similar to the same period of metal and porcelain inscription.

Ming Jingtai paragraph due to the pseudo-marks too much, it is not yet possible to determine which kind of recognition can be used as a standard recognition. But the cast burin paragraph, seal script paragraph, imitation of the Song dynasty paragraph, as well as the double-dragon encircled paragraph are recognized as pseudo-marks, can be excluded. Pinch double hooks and yin carving paragraph, some researchers believe that can be used as Jingtai real paragraph, but only the reasoning of the logic of the inference, can not be in vain conclusion.

Ming Jiajing paragraph for the carving of the yin text straight two lines "Daming Jiajing year system" regular script six-character paragraph.

Ming Wanli period of filigree enamel ware for the double hook filigree paragraph (some words inside and outside the word filled with enamel glaze), the number of words for the "Daming Wanli year system" or "Daming Wanli years made" six words in regular script paragraph. Especially to a year made for this period is characterized by the tone of the paragraph. The order of the word is straight single line, straight two lines or horizontal rows.

The Qing Dynasty filigree enamel ware of various kinds of recognition, the production of the paragraph method of casting burin, engraved, and openwork paragraph, etc.. The style of the inscription includes regular, seal script, imitation of the Song Dynasty (imitation of the Song Dynasty was first seen in the Qianlong period), of which the majority of regular script. The number of characters is four or six. Most of the frames are in the form of square boxes and long boxes.

2. Bone and type

Ming and Qing dynasty silk enamel ware bone and type of the general trend is: the early Ming dynasty bone slightly thicker, thinner in the late period. Qing dynasty from the Kangxi period, the tire bone thick and solid, to the end of the Qing dynasty thin. Ming dynasty artifacts pinch often have broken phenomenon, and the qing dynasty due to pure copper and improve the firing and polishing technology, this phenomenon basically disappeared. Ming dynasty artifacts gilded thin, often wear off the phenomenon, the Qing dynasty, especially in the Qianlong period, heavy gilding, gilding technology is far better than the Ming dynasty, so far the artifacts of the gilding is still shining.

The second generation of Ming and Qing dynasty filigree enamel ware volume and type from small to large, from concise to complex, from furnishing, ritual to ornamental practical.

3. Decorative motifs

The Ming and Qing dynasty filigree enamel ware decorative motifs are varied, but also experienced a concise to elaborate process. To entwined lotus pattern, for example, the late Yuan and early Ming sparse and dense, large flowers, large leaves, branches and vines stretching strong, all single line outlining pattern lines. Branches and leaves in tandem, and embellished with a number of blooming flowers, full flowers, short and fat petals, often peach-shaped flower center. In the mid to late Ming Dynasty, the outline lines began to be outlined in double lines, and the layout tended to be more elaborate, but still retaining some of the early residual charm. Tangzhi lotus petals tend to be sharp and thin, the flower center is often "Gui" or Ruyi shape. Qing dynasty twining lotus pattern branches and curved, the layout is dense and regular, very patterned. The basic outline of the outline line with two lines, the Ming Dynasty that kind of unrestrained flavor no longer exists.

4. Enamel glaze

The late Yuan and early Ming dynasty pinch wire enamel ware glaze is delicate, pure tone, bright and colorful, with a crystal-like transparency. Usually light blue for the ground, decorated with red, yellow, white, green, purple, dark blue and other colors of glaze. From the late Xuande Ming, the glaze color is slightly gray, gloss reduction. In addition to the light blue color of this period of pinch wire enamel ware, the blue color is widely used. By the Wanli period, intermediate colors such as light green and white appeared. Enamel color glaze increased, the new ochre, bean green, turquoise green and other color glaze varieties.

The enamel glaze of the Qing Dynasty is rich in varieties, the color glaze used up to dozens of kinds of more. But it has a **** the same point, are not translucent.

Another feature of enamel glaze is the phenomenon of surface trachoma, is due to the high borate content and the redox effect caused by the firing process. Craftsmen often use the "wax patch" method to remedy, that is, paraffin wax with color powder made of color wax, filled in the trachoma. To the Qianlong period, by improving the process, put an end to the phenomenon of trachoma.

Cloisonné with its distinctive national style and brilliant artistic style, in the world of filigree enameling process is unique. Those imitations of the plausible Cloisonné fakes, whether in the material, texture or artistic style can not be compared with the Ming and Qing dynasty production of filigree enamel ware. As long as you are familiar with the production of Ming and Qing dynasty silk enamel, materials and artistic style and other characteristics, a look will be able to determine its authenticity.

Related terms

Enamel

Enamel draws on the technique of enamel painting on copper, on the porcelain tire, with a variety of enamel materials depicted by a new kind of glazed porcelain, also known as "porcelain painting enamel". Graceful and elegant enamel came out, although with the "Kangxi era", but the relationship with Yongzheng is more important. Yongzheng ascended the throne, the social reform, greatly improving the social status of Jingdezhen porcelain artists. And Yongzheng love exquisite porcelain, often on the court porcelain to evaluate, personally asked, and sent the right officials to manage the porcelain production. Kangxi, Yongzheng years when the production of enamel, the first official kilns in Jingdezhen selected the best raw materials fired into a vegetarian tire sent to the court, the court painter added color in the palace after the second into the low-temperature furnace baked into.