What is the core content of Confucian tradition in China?

It is not easy for Xiu De, a Confucian, to help the world and be immune to it. The virtue ethics of "respect" is the core content of Confucianism. In the pre-Qin period, Confucius put forward a reasonable and reliable argument for Confucian virtue ethics for the first time, the core of which was the emotional principle. Before Confucius, the proposition "why should people live a moral life" was related to the God of Heaven with personality. Confucius' theory of benevolence, with emotion as the first principle and the integration of reason and emotion as the main line, initiated Confucian philosophy with "why morality is possible and why it is necessary" as the fundamental topic. In Confucius' theory of benevolence, the personality meaning of heaven has been weakened, while the role of man as the subject of moral practice has been highlighted. The emotional principle based on kinship and the practical rational principle different from cognitive rationality are carried out at the same time, and finally point to a road of sanctification that does not cross the border. How is morality possible? Why is it necessary? To solve this problem, the most important thing is to find a universal principle. Confucius established a universal principle-emotion-for his benevolence system from the real and measurable affection of filial piety. Confucius believes that human beings are sentient beings. From birth, everyone has "love for parents for three years" [1]. From birth to old age, they have been in the emotional interaction of parents, brothers and friends. Love life is unavoidable for everyone; Man is a rational creature, and everyone can extend from "limited" love to "infinite" love. Since emotion is necessary and can be universal, is virtue ethics completely ok? Eat? Ω Ω Ω Ω? Mode？ What happened to the grey owl? What about obsidian muscle? What happened to your mane and hips? Pakistani ship? Mechanical Luan Yuanna sticks to me? I'm sorry, I'm so sad, I'm so sad; What are you doing? Last time you had sex? Hey? What are you talking about? B style='color: black; Background color: # ffff66'> Confucian philosophy pays attention to experience and material evidence. Confucius established the principle of subjectivity for Confucian philosophy and the principle of the unity of emotion and reason with emotion as the core, which had a decisive influence on later Confucianism. Mencius' "Everyone has compassion" actually means that everyone has compassion. Mencius' exposition of "righteousness is inside" and "benevolence and righteousness are inside" is a further demonstration of the internality and universality of the emotional principle established by Confucius, which has new contents. The emotional principle established by Confucius comes from filial piety and filial piety, and its main feature is true but not empty. Confucius used the phrase "life is straightforward" [1] to illustrate this point. The true feelings are torn off by reason and become the common feelings of "lovers", which is manifested in practice as etiquette, that is, the level of foreign kings. In the era of Mencius, the discussion of "love" was further deepened. Guodian bamboo slips have a lot of information about this. Mencius inherited the measure of Confucius' righteousness and certified the immanence and universality of reason, but he went further than Confucius. He regards emotion as "goodness" at the source and talks about "love" with "compassion", that is to say, love is good, which is reflected in his statement that human nature is good. "Nature is good" means "Emotion is good". Love is love, but love also has right and wrong. "As soon as I saw it today, I wish my son would go into the well, and everyone has compassion." Mold ring pry? Reading and waving widows? Dare to change? Spying? Smash? Are you familiar with rock and glass? Embedded? Gray disease! My compassion [2] is already a rational emotion to distinguish right from wrong. In other words, Mencius condensed the emotion that Confucius had to give to reason and adjust in practice into his kindness. Therefore, in Mencius' theory, he rarely talks about the "golden mean" and rarely talks about the rational adjustment of emotions that Confucius has been talking about. Because Mencius' kindness already has a rational character, that is, the golden mean character. In this way, in Mencius, the key point is how to "expand" this kind of love. Of course, expanding and filling it also involves the role of human reason. The core of Confucian justice is emotion and reason. Although Mencius has internalized the character of reason into kindness, he also emphasized that reason is indispensable in the process of moral practice. "The Doctrine of the Mean" says, "Happiness, anger, sadness and happiness are among them. All are posted in the festival, which is and. " Of course, emotions are emotions. This emphasizes the immanence and universality of emotion. With the expression of "the nature of destiny, the Tao is called", the core principle of Confucius' theory of benevolence is fully affirmed, which is taken as the starting point of adult's "Tao". At the same time, it emphasizes that "the middle section is the sum", that is to say, in the process of moral cultivation, the regulatory role of reason can not be ignored, so it is called "teaching". The doctrine of the mean and Mencius' "theory of good nature" are both within the framework of Confucius' righteousness. What is the core? Lasting? Hey? Choose Mǔ0, what's wrong with pulling strings and arcs? Trouble? Ping Lao (6) Isn't the locust a little O? Cavity? What happened to the last machine? What's wrong with it? Hey? Why do you say you are scratching Xing Yuyu? Bath target smell? It's mom's Chili. What is the reason for it? Sword? Crawling to recover hemorrhoids, tearing strings, broken? Trouble? Congcong? Traces? Are Asian trees fierce? Lai rate guide? who is it? Suddenly? Did the old emperor feel sorry for the tiger? Even agreed to kiss each other? Senna Langmo? Hey? I take a shower and think foolishly about welding. Do I take a bath to protect my cough? Hey, hey, y? Are there any small scars and nests? Neon kills mulberries? Hey? Sigh of umbrella cup 1], when it comes to Mencius and the golden mean, we only talk about knowing and dealing with heaven, and think that the friendship between monarch and minister, father and son, husband and wife, brother Kun and friends is the way to reach the world. We further regard the emotional principle as the starting point and core of moral practice, and fully affirm this inherent and universal principle. It is precisely because of the principle of emotion that Confucianism emphasizes experience and material evidence, which is different from speculative Taoist wisdom and does not need the perfect construction of metaphysical system. It is precisely because of the principle of practical rationality that Confucianism needs self-cultivation and moral practice. Therefore, the road to sanctification is a never-ending process, which requires careful thinking, discernment and perseverance, and continuous learning and reflection. Pre-Qin Taoism is a speculative philosophy in the form of realm.

Dong Zhongshu's reconstruction of Confucian ethics based on the theory of harmony between man and nature has profound social and political reasons. In Dong Zhongshu's theory, heaven is an absolutely perfect personality god who rewards good and punishes evil. This is a theological teleological thought. From the internal development of Confucianism, his theory is different from that of Confucius and Mencius, and the key lies in that he did not regard emotion as the starting point and core principle of general ethics like Confucius and Mencius. Therefore, he must improve human rationality. Under the framework of theological teleology, he also strongly advocated that reason is the subject of moral practice. In this sense, he did not deviate from Confucianism, and he also made his own unique contribution. At the same time, his teleological thought provides a train of thought for the natural teleology of Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties.

The rise of metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties. The distinction between being and not being, and the relationship between religion and nature have become the main topics of this era. On the political and social level, Confucian ethics has not been greatly challenged. If we simply look at it from the perspective of the history of thought, metaphysics makes a metaphysical argument for Confucian morality and ethics. This is the confluence of Confucianism and Taoism under the background of the times. Metaphysics provided a speculative methodology for Confucian moral philosophy, which developed into Confucian pragmatism in the Neo-Confucianism period of Song and Ming Dynasties. Guo Xiang's theory holds that Ming Jiao and nature are not antagonistic, but unified, while Wang Bi's theory of respecting the secluded places holds that Ming Jiao cannot be surpassed, while Wang Bi's theory of noble people is the most metaphysical, and he thinks that there should be more people and let nature take its course. But Wang Bi still claimed that Confucius was a saint. The saying that saints are sentient and heartless is also a major issue of debate at that time. We can see that the two basic elements of Confucianism, rationality and emotion, have been fully discussed in metaphysics. In fact, whether there is a "ghost" or a "ghost" theory, people's rational ability has been deeply discussed. Coupled with the reappearance of emotional problems and the reinterpretation of the concept of nature, these have opened up the ideas of the pioneers of Neo-Confucianism in the Song Dynasty.

What really challenges Confucianism is Buddhism. Buddhism was introduced into China from the Eastern Han Dynasty, which developed greatly in the Wei and Jin Dynasties and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The prevalence of Huayan Sect, Zhi Zhi Sect, Tiantai Sect, especially Zen Sect, makes Confucian moral philosophy face unprecedented challenges. On the realistic social and political level, Confucian ethics still dominates. However, people of insight clearly see that if the Confucian theory of benevolence and righteousness is shaken, then the construction of Confucian ethics at the outer king level will also be in jeopardy. Han Yu, Li Ao and others tried to rebuild the humanistic value system. Han Yu said at the beginning of The Original Road that "universal love means benevolence, while appropriateness means righteousness". He further put forward the theory of "three natures of sex" in "Primitive Nature", arguing that sex is innate, and feelings are born of things. The content of sex is benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith, and feelings include anger, sorrow, fear, love and evil desire. In Renaturation Book, Li Ao clearly proposed to establish the source of life for Confucianism. He said, "The reason why people are saints is also the reason why people are saints, and the reason why people confuse their nature is also emotional." They tried to find an internal universal principle and re-demonstrate Confucian virtue ethics. It is also a contribution for them to establish Confucian classics on the basis of Daxue and The Doctrine of the Mean. In this sense, they inherited the pre-Qin Confucianism and started the Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties. But they failed to grasp the core of Confucianism, and failed to see the real challenge of Buddhism to Confucianism. Therefore, they failed to establish a new Confucianism that meets the requirements of the times. This historic task awaits those who arrive.

In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, Mr. Hu Yuan, Mr. Sun Fu and Mr. Shijie held high the banner against the second son of Buddha. However, they basically focused on the social and political level to deal with Buddhism, prompting it to escape from the ceremony of monarch and minister, showing no affection for father and son, and showing no respect for husband and wife. To be fair, they took a step back from where Han Yu and Li Ao went. They are just trying to rebuild righteousness and Tao. Essentially, you can't stand without breaking it. If we can't grasp the fundamental spirit of Confucianism and where Buddhism challenges Confucian virtue ethics, it is impossible to rebuild new Confucianism.

This historical responsibility falls on Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, the representatives of Neo-Confucianism in the Northern Song Dynasty. Before examining their respective contributions to the establishment of new Confucianism, it is necessary for us to roughly describe the main aspects of Buddhist theory that pose challenges and even fatal threats to Confucianism. Generally speaking, it can be said from cosmology, life theory and mind theory. Buddhism believes that everything in the mountains and rivers is illusory, and everything in the universe is an illusory realm born from the illusion of human life and death; Life and death can be reincarnated, the human form is gone, and God is still there, constantly reincarnating. Life is a bitter sea. Love, anger and delusion make people live and never be happy. The heart is the action heart, and everything is idealistic. Everything is born for a reason, and the origin is empty. In short, all actions are impermanent, and all laws are empty. In fact, we can simply say that it is a radical move for Buddhist theory to ruthlessly crush the two major elements of Confucianism, which is extremely severe. The general ethics, which emphasizes the respect for the humble and the filial piety as the foundation of benevolence and righteousness, whether it is Confucius and Mencius' benevolence theory with emotion as the starting point and core, Xunzi's etiquette theory with reason as the starting point and core, or Dong Zhongshu's induction theory with pure and perfect personality as the starting point and core, really means that the building will collapse after being stripped of the two elements of rationality and emotion. The internal principle of universality cannot be established, and the internal level of saints cannot stand upright, let alone the external level of kings. The basic theory of Buddhism has thoroughly explained the unreliability and uncertainty of reason and emotion. If we simply regard emotion or reason as the internal universal principle and call it the source of life, it is a practice that ignores the challenge of Buddhism, at least it cannot be balanced with it. How to rediscover an unquestionable basic point and a completely reliable principle of internal universality, so as to find a way out for Confucian justice and re-demonstrate the question of why morality is possible and necessary, is an urgent historical topic of Neo-Confucianism in the Northern Song Dynasty.

When investigating these representatives of Neo-Confucianism in the Northern Song Dynasty, we must always pay attention to the following two points: First, how did his theory respond and refute Buddhism? Secondly, what kind of internal universality principle did his theory find to rebuild Confucian virtue ethics? If we don't use these two points to measure a theoretical system, it is likely to be either simple or attached. Let me briefly comment on several representative figures, including Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi.

Illustration of Taiji and General Book are Zhou Dunyi's main works. It is characterized by establishing a universe model based on Yi Zhuan and the theory of Yin-Yang and Five Elements. Everything in the universe is endless, which comes from the movement of Tai Chi. In fact, whether the source is infinite or Tai Chi is secondary. Here, the most noteworthy thing is that Zhou Dunyi responded to the Buddhist world view: mountains and rivers are empty. He said everything was "false", I said everything was "true", he said "false" and I said "real". Everything in the world is real, which is really a key point. If everything is illusory, then where do you start with courtesy, righteousness and benevolence? Therefore, Zhou Dunyi's response to Buddhism from this point is a great contribution to Confucianism. Confucianism after him, without exception, or the change of yin and yang and five elements, or the prosperity of words and gas, all responded to the Buddhist theory that everything in the mountains and rivers is illusory. Zhou Dunyi believes that man is the spirit of heaven and earth because of the five elements. "A saint is defined as benevolence and righteousness ... to establish a person in an extreme way" [3]. Man is actually human nature, which is an inherent and universal principle he discovered. Now he goes a step further and explains this inherent and universal truth with "sincerity", which is the internal source of life and the basic point of Zhou's theory. Honesty is not only the source of all things, but also the basis of human's moral and ethical life of kindness, courtesy, wisdom and trust, and it is an inherent universal principle of human beings. When the pre-Qin Confucianists demonstrated that people should live a moral and ethical life, they did not involve cosmology, but directly proceeded from people's emotional existence. As the first theoretical system of Neo-Confucianism in the Northern Song Dynasty, Zhou Dunyi combined the world view with virtue with the theory of "sincerity" as the core? Is the table mouth cute? Hey hey hey hey hey hey. Where is the space capsule? Lumou [6] bath 7 у 405 mode? What's the matter with you? What's the matter with you? Lights, parrots, keys, lampshades? Men and women conspired to frame? What is Pu's resistance? What happened to the plaque? Yan Huaixi? What's the matter with you? Are you stupid enough to get pregnant with vinegar? What do you want? Trouble? Knock on the plaque? What's your last name? What is the color cutting rate? Hey? Say strange? Iron ring? Catch Chu Xiao Pan #? Hey? Scandium? What's your fault? Is the overseas Chinese house strange 1 #? Play? Title? Hip? B style='color: black; Background color: # ffff66'> The reconstruction of Confucian humanistic value has found a reliable basis. What is more noteworthy is that Zhou Dunyi believes that honesty is the source of all behaviors and also the source of human nature. The theoretical model behind the integration of cosmology and human nature is "the unity of man and nature". As mentioned earlier, Confucianism in the pre-Qin period did not have such a model of harmony between man and nature. In The Doctrine of the Mean, it seems that the nature of fate is related to heaven and people. In essence, it is only to show the inherent universality of "sex", which refers to the emotion that is not expressed, and clearly points out that this is the "foundation of the world", and the golden mean has no logical way to integrate heaven and man. In order to have a rational way of harmonious coexistence between man and nature, the premise must be teleology. Dong Zhongshu's theory of telepathy between man and nature is a theological teleology. Zhou Dunyi's sincerity is not only the source of all things in the universe, but also the source of benevolence, righteousness, courtesy and wisdom, and is the thought of natural teleology. From the development of Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties? It can be seen that the natural teleology has revived Confucianism in the new period and is the most powerful weapon to respond to Buddhism and Taoism, especially Buddhism theory. Natural teleology has made great contributions to the development of Confucianism. Zhu Zi respected Zhou Dunyi as the founder of Neo-Confucianism. Why should people live a moral and ethical life? Is there a universal standard for virtue ethics? Confucianism is to solve this problem. In the pre-Qin period, Confucius and Mencius demonstrated this proposition based on the inherent universal principle of human emotions, and Neo-Confucianism in the Northern Song Dynasty inherited this problem, relying on the teleology of nature, and demonstrated "why morality is possible and necessary" at a higher level. People should live a moral and ethical life, which is the mission and the purpose of life. The road of moral practice is the way for people to accomplish their mission. People have been in the world all their lives and have been on the road of ultimate concern for sanctification. But between heaven and earth, Yin and Yang are transformed and indifferent, and everything is endless from Taiji (or sincerity) ontology. Is this assertion arbitrary? How can a "limited" individual achieve his "adult" goal on the road of moral practice? How did Taiji (Cheng), the source of all things, become a "pole on earth"? Zhou Dunyi linked heaven with humanity with the theory that "the sage decides righteousness", but he failed to integrate heaven with humanity in theory. Therefore, the unity of heaven and man seems to him to be just a realm form. Metaphysics is a realm of metaphysics, and Zen Buddhism put forward that "chopping wood and carrying water is a wonderful way" from Huineng, the sixth ancestor, which means that Buddhism tries to change from the realm of harmony between man and nature to human Buddhism and begins to point out that man is Buddha. In addition, the positive significance of Buddhism to human reason and emotion has been eliminated, so that Confucianism has almost no place to stand. Therefore, for Confucianism, if natural teleology wants to gain a firm foothold, it must re-examine and affirm human reason and emotion. In this way, natural teleology can truly become a weapon of criticism. The thought of natural teleology was not developed and perfected by Zhou Dunyi, but as a pioneer of Neo-Confucianism, Zhou Dunyi opened the broad road of Neo-Confucianism.

Zhang Zai built a complete theoretical system for Neo-Confucianism with the ambition of "making a heart for heaven and earth, making a life for the people", and was called a master of Neo-Confucianism in the Northern Song Dynasty. I'm afraid Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi can't compare with it in the structure of the philosophical system. To investigate Zhang Zai's theory, we should start with how to respond to Buddhism and how to find an internal and universal principle. True Dream is Zhang Zai's main work. The category of "Too Deficiency" is Zhang Zai's unique theoretical contribution, and "Too Deficiency leads to Qi" and "Heart governs temperament" are his two main propositions. "Too intangible, the gas of ontology, its gathering and dispersion, the change of guest shape; Be quiet without feeling, the origin of sex, knowledge and knowledge, and feel at home in the exchange of things. The feeling of being a guest is intangible, and the feeling of being a guest is intangible, but one of them is the best. The accumulation and dispersion of qi is too empty, just like the release of Ivylinna Lee in water. If you know that too much is qi, there is nothing "[4]. Respond to the Buddha's illusory theory of mountains and rivers; With the division of virtue knowledge and experience knowledge, Freud's proposition of finiteness and unreliability of reason is dispelled. There seems to be a physical relationship between deficiency and qi, so use it right away. Comparing with Zhou Dunyi's theory, we can see that Zhang Zai unified the transformation of Yin-Yang and Five Elements with Qi, but "Taixu" is not Zhou Dunyi's "Taiji", that is to say, Taixu and combination are not as simple as the relationship between body and function. In fact, Taixu has a basic feature that is the most critical in Zhang Zai's theoretical system. I don't know why, he didn't say it himself, or maybe he didn't fully realize it. Maybe this is where the love story says that he has made great efforts. The basic feature of "space" is "life", and it can even be directly said that "space" is everything in the world? Right? Yu Yu? China? What's wrong with this stupid stool? Are you kidding? Going? How about a nude bath? Cover? Hey? What is the burden? Wandering the streets? ! ! Right? Closed? Choking to cook? Tao? Chlorine? What happened to your career? Is Shao stupid? Ke 6？ Is this soup stewed? Back model? Stewed Miao Ma? Is the accusation just right? Promise? Tan hammer, where is Kang Kun? The emperor and the meteorite? Collapse? A ship crashed? Feed r, right? Coins? Is it annoying to say that the yard is destroyed? What's the matter with you? What's the matter with you? Xin Songheng, Yumu, do you have any questions? Decorate with graves? 󤉱𖴋𖴋⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁ ⒁? Pony? Hey? Hey, number six? Please. Hey, Nana? sorry Hey? What's left? What's the matter with you? Arrest curtains? Hey? Bear? Proud? Correct bristle shape? Back model? Planting with sodium felt? Hey? Hey? (2) Do you have any questions? Knock? What about mosquitoes? There are meteorites? Back model? Planting with sodium felt? Hey? (2) What's the matter with you? /P & gt；

References:

[1] Analects of Yang Bojun [M] Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980

[2] Yang Bojun's Mencius [M] Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1992.

[3] Zhou Dunyi Taiji Diagram [M] Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 1992

[4] Zhang Zaiji [M] Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company 1978