Science and technology in the four ancient civilizations ！！！！！！ Lifesaving ！！！！！！！

(I) Ancient Egyptian agro-industrial technology and primitive science

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Located in northeastern Africa's Nile River Valley, 4000 BC appeared in the ancient civilization of agriculture-based countries --. -The Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, which had the longest history of slavery in the world, was invaded by foreigners in 525 BC. In terms of technology, Ancient Egypt had influenced the surrounding peoples for a long period of time, leaving a valuable legacy for human civilization. Ancient Egypt was the first country in the world to enter the slave society, and thus, its original and scientific technology based on the externalization of ideology must have been at the highest level of development in the world at that time.

Astronomy and mathematics. Ancient Egyptian agricultural production needs to grasp the exact date of the flooding of the Nile, and thus according to the sky to determine the season has become a very important work, and therefore the accumulation of astronomical knowledge and enrichment. Ancient Egyptians created the earliest solar calendar in human history in 2787 BC. The method of development is to Sirius and the sun at the same time in the horizon (at this time the Nile River began to flood) as the beginning of the year, the three seasons of the year *** 12 months, 30 days a month, plus the end of the year 5-day holiday *** 365 days a year. This calendar has a difference of only 1/4 day per year, and is the original basis for today's world common calendar. Due to the Nile River flooding every year after the land must be re-measured and demarcated, year after year of work so that the ancient Egyptians in the geometry than any other nation at the time have done more practical exercises, accumulated a lot of mathematical knowledge. The construction of water facilities and the building of temples and pyramids made the application of this mathematical knowledge and further enriched and developed it. The ancient Egyptians used decimal notation and were able to calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, trapezoids, and circles, as well as the volumes of square cylinders and square cones with flat truncated heads. They used the circumference π = 3.1605. In algebra the ancient Egyptians were able to solve quadratic equations and some simpler quadratic equations. This knowledge later became the basis for the development of mathematics by the ancient Greeks.

Anatomy and medicine. Ancient Egyptians believed that people could continue to live in the other world after death, and thus the dead were dissected and brushed into mummies (dry bodies). This accumulated a lot of knowledge of human physiology and anatomy, which undoubtedly contributed to the development of their medicine. Ancient Egyptian doctors were able to perform surgical operations and cure eye diseases, toothaches, diarrhea, lung diseases and many diseases of gynecology. They prepared medicines from a variety of plants, animals and minerals. Ancient Egyptian medicine was the most advanced in the world at the time, and this knowledge later had a great impact on Western medicine through the ancient Greeks.

Craft technology. Egyptian handicrafts were also developed to a considerable extent. As early as 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians built boats up to 47 meters long. 1600 BC invented the technology of manufacturing glass, pottery, linen fabrics, leather, papyrus (for writing) and jewelry and other manufacturing process technology has also reached a high level. Ancient Egyptians learned the technology of bronze smelting before and after the construction of 1500 BC, but copper ore resources are not abundant. The use of iron was late, to the 7th century BC to generally replace the bronze.

Building technology. Building technology is a comprehensive technology, which can largely reflect the general technical level of a society, especially in ancient times. Ancient Egypt in the history of mankind's most notable technological achievement is the use of stone to build the huge pyramids and temples that still exist today. The pyramids were the foundations of the tombs of the pharaohs (kings) of ancient Egypt. The largest of the more than 70 existing pyramids is the Pyramid of Khufu, built in 2600 BC. Tower height of 146.5 meters, the bottom for the side of the square meters long, the entire training with faceted huge stone blocks built, each block weighs an average of 2.5 tons, *** with about 2.3 million pieces of boulders. Between the stone blocks did not use mortar bonding, masonry seams tight. Ancient Egyptian temple architecture is also very amazing, such as the existing Karnak on the Nile River, a temple built in the 14th century BC, its main hall covers an area of about 5,000 square meters, standing 134 huge round stone pillars, the largest of which 12 diameter of 3.6 meters, about 21 meters high, which can be seen how spectacular. Under the condition of using stone tools and bronze tools three or four thousand years ago, ancient Egyptians actually built such magnificent buildings as pyramids and temples, which is really a miracle of human history.

(2) Agro-industrial Technology and Primitive Science in the Ancient Two Rivers Valley

The Two Rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in West Asia. The Two Rivers Basin is the region of Mesopotamia in present-day Iraq. From 4000 B.C. to the 6th century B.C., the region was successively changed by the slaveholding kingdoms of Sumer, Babylon, Assyria, and Chaldea (Neo-Babylon ). The ancient civilization of the Two Rivers Valley existed almost simultaneously with that of ancient Egypt, and its scientific and technological achievements. It is also comparable to the latter.

Astronomy and mathematics. In astronomy, the ancient two river basin than the ancient Egyptian calendar, their calendar is the lunar calendar, that is, the cycle of the moon's waxing and waning 29.5 days for a month, a month as 29 days and 30 days arranged in phase. Twelve months a year, that is, 354 days, the number of days is insufficient to set the intercalary (after a few years plus a leap month) to solve the problem. Ancient two rivers basin people learned to distinguish between planets and stars, drawing the world's earliest star charts, and the ecliptic (the sun's orbit) near the stars are divided into 12 palaces, each palace of the constellations are named after a mythological god or animal. The ancient Two Rivers Valley was very accomplished in algebra. The notation was a combination of base 10 and base 60, and many number tables were compiled to facilitate calculations, including multiplication tables, reciprocal tables, square tables, square root tables, cubic tables, cube root tables, and so on. They were able to solve quadratic and multiple equations, as well as some quadratic equations, and even a number of more specialized cubic, quadratic and exponential equations. In geometry, the outstanding contribution of the ancient tribesmen was the division of the circumferential angle into 360 according to the system of 60. 1. into 60', and 1' into 6O'', a method which has been used up to the present day. Like the ancient Egyptians, they were also able to correctly calculate the area of many plane figures and the volume of three-dimensional figures.

Medicine and biology. Ancient Two Rivers Valley has survived on the medicine of the mud plate book (in the production of good wet mud plate by the text engraved on it) has more than 800, reflecting the doctors at that time with drugs and massage and many other methods of healing, the use of plant medicine has been more than 150 kinds of, but also some of the animal fat made of ointment used for treatment. Recorded diseases treated by doctors include cough, stomach disease, yellow fever, stroke, eye disease and so on. The names of 100 species of animals and 250 species of plants were recorded in some clay tablet books, and the world's earliest classification of animals was made. The ancient people of the Two Rivers Valley would also hand-pollinate the date palms as they blossomed to increase the production of dates.

Crafts and building technology industry. Around 3000 BC Sumerians made the world's earliest wheeled cart, and later invented pottery with a potter's wheel, but also to build a kind of animal-powered traction sowing machine. More than 3,600 years ago, the ancient Babylonian Kingdom period, the glass manufacturing industry has been quite large scale, from some of the colorful glass devices survived to date can be seen at the time of the high level of craftsmanship. Ancient building materials in the two river valleys are mainly art materials and unfired mud bricks, and sometimes also with stone, so can be preserved under the building is very small. The construction of the city during the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom in the 7th century B.C. showed a fairly high level of technology. The city of Babylon had three inner and outer walls, on which *** there were more than 300 towers. Straight avenues paved with stone slabs ran through the city. The Garden of the Air next to the Royal Palace was called by later generations one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Metallurgical technology. Around 4000 B.C., the Sumerians began to manufacture bronze, and in the ancient Babylonian period around 1800 B.C., the use of bronze had become quite common and was more advanced than that of the ancient Egyptians. Around 1900 BC, the Hittites on the Asia Minor Peninsula in the northwestern part of the Two River Basin invented iron smelting technology and spread the use of iron to the Two River Basin. In the 8th century BC, the Assyrian Kingdom in the Two River Basin used iron to make weapons in large quantities, forming a ten poor and powerful military force, while showing that at this time the Two River Basin has entered the Iron Age.

The agro-industrial technology and primitive science civilization in ancient Egypt and the Two River Basin show that, after mankind entered the civilized society, the primitive science has begun to cross the threshold of theoretical knowledge, but this theory can still only come from the direct empirical technology, so, the basic characteristics of the primitive science is still empirical. Due to the political and religious needs, there arose a class of brain workers like priests, who mastered culture and played a considerable role in summarizing and deepening the knowledge of the primitive sciences while carrying out religious activities. In the process of increasing the level of social productivity, technology has made great progress, showing the wisdom and creativity of laborers, especially craftsmen.

(3) Agro-industrial Technology and Primitive Science in Ancient Greece

In the 6th century B.C.E., when Ancient Egypt and the Valley of the Two Rivers were successively occupied by foreigners, and their cultures declined as a result of this, a new scientific and technological civilization rose in the Greek region of Europe. Ancient Greece consisted of the surrounding area centered on the Aegean Sea, including present-day mainland Greece and the Ionian region on the eastern coast of the Aegean Sea (present-day western coast of Turkey), as well as some areas in southern Italy (including Sicily). As early as around 2000 B.C., there were slave city-states on the Greek island of Crete. Later through changes, to the 6th century BC, represented by the city-state of Athens, ancient Greek society, economy and culture have entered a period of prosperity, known as the "Athenian period". At this time, a large number of scholars specializing in academic research, many of them have traveled to Egypt and the Two River Basin, learning the local advanced scientific and cultural knowledge. In the 4th century B.C., the Macedonians in the north defeated the Greeks and then invaded the east together with the Greeks, establishing a large empire spanning three continents, Europe, Asia and Africa. At this time, the cultural center was transferred from Athens to the city of Alexandria, which belonged to Egypt, and Greek culture once again flourished, with new developments in science, known as the "Alexandrian period" (or "Hellenistic period"). In the 1st century BC, the Romans conquered the Greek mainland and the areas where the Greeks were active, and only then did ancient Greek history come to an end.

Astronomy. Ancient Greek astronomy began when scholars observed and pondered the workings of the heavens. Some of their conclusions, in today's view still has a certain truth. Such as "the earth is in the air, there is nothing to support it", "the moon is not itself luminous, but reflecting the light of the sun; the sun and the earth is the same size, is a pure fire", "the universe to the center of the earth, the earth also is spherical", that the eclipse of the sun is due to the fact that "when the sun passes over the moon, the moon hides the rays of the sun and casts a dark shadow on the ground", that "just as the world comes into being, so it grows, declines, and is destroyed", and so on. " and so on. Modeling the universe was an important part of ancient Greek astronomy. The Pythagorean school first put forward a model of the universe: the entire universe is spherical, the center of the celestial body called "central fire". The Earth, the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets of gold, wood, water, fire and earth all orbit around the central fire. Eudoxus (408 ~ 355 BC) constructed a model of the universe is the Earth as the center, the sun, the moon and the five planets and stars are attached to the 27 concentric transparent spherical shell layer, rotating around the Earth. In order to better explain some of the complex phenomena of celestial motion, people continued to improve Eudoxus' model of the universe by adding more concentric spheres, up to a maximum of 55 concentric spheres. By the time of Alexander, Hipparchus (c. 190-120 BC) created the principal wheel-even wheel model to replace the concentric sphere model. This model still takes the Earth as the center of the universe, and each celestial body moves in a uniform circle along its own "home wheel", and the centers of the home wheels move in a uniform circle around the Earth along their respective "even wheels". This model is simpler than the concentric sphere model, and can better explain the variation of the distance between the sun and the moon and the irregular apparent motion of the planets. In the ancient Greek era, when geocentricity was popular, an astronomer named Aristarchus (ca. 310-230 BC) actually proposed heliocentrism! He believed that the sun and stars were immobile, that the earth and planets revolved around the sun, and that the earth in turn rotated on its own axis once a day. This was the precursor to the Copernican doctrine. Unfortunately at the time it was not understood and Aristarchus was accused of blasphemy. There are many other aspects of ancient Greek astronomy achievements, such as Eudoxus and Alexander period of Eratosthenes (about 273 AD ~ 192 years ago) have used astronomical methods to measure the circumference of the Earth's equator, the latter measured the result is only less than the present-day measurement of the equatorial circumference of 385.13 kilometers. Hippocampus was the first in the history of astronomy to discover the age difference (i.e., the phenomenon of the equinox moving westward), and he also measured the value of the return year, the lunar month, and the ratio of the radius of the moon and the earth, all of which were very close to the present-day value. He also created many astronomical instruments. Although the ancient Greek astronomy is not lacking in defects and errors, compared with other ancient civilizations, it is the most theoretical, the most complete system, and the measurement method has reached the peak of the ancient times. It has had a profound impact on the astronomy of later generations.

Mathematics. And other ancient civilizations focus on practicality is different, ancient Greece attaches great importance to the theory of mathematics, research. In the Athenian period to make outstanding contributions to mathematics are mainly Pythagoras (about 560 ~ 480 BC) school and the school of wisdom. The most famous achievement of the former was the proof of the Pythagorean Theorem (known as Pythagoras' Theorem in the West) and the discovery of the irrational number root 2; the latter put forward three famous geometrical diagramming problems, which attracted countless mathematicians of that time and later generations to study them painstakingly, and it was not until the modern times that it was proved that these diagrams were impossible. However, mathematicians obtained many theoretical results in the process of research, such as the discovery of the quadratic curve and the exhaustive method of mathematical proofs. The highest achievements of ancient Greek mathematics are embodied in the monumental work "The Origin of Geometry" by Euclid (ca. 323 - 235 BC) of the Alexandrian period. The book systematically organizes and summarizes the mathematical achievements of the predecessors by means of axiomatization, i.e., starting from a number of simple axioms, 467 theorems are deduced by strict deductive logic, thus constituting the knowledge of elementary geometry into a complete theoretical system. The Principia Geometria played an important role in the development of ancient Greek science and later Western scholarship. With Euclid's contemporaries Apollonius (about 262 ~ 190 BC) by the "conic curve" is also an ancient Greek outstanding mathematical works. He used the plane to intercept the conic and obtained various quadratic curves, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola was named by him. Also in the same era, Archimedes (about 287-212 B.C.) worked out methods for finding the area and volume of a sphere, the area of a bow, and the area enclosed by a parabola and a solenoid. He solved many puzzles by the exhaustive method and also solved quadratic equations by the method of conic curves.

Physics. Ancient Greek scholars also paid close attention to many physical phenomena, made a number of important discoveries. Such as noticing the magnet attracts iron phenomenon, know that "the wind is a flow of air", explains the reason for the appearance of the rainbow, realize that Xinjue is the sound of the air vibration caused by and so on. The Pythagorean school studied the relationship between string length and meter, and discovered that in order to make the pitch harmonious, the string length must be made into a simple integer ratio. Aristotle (384-322 BC), a famous scholar of the Athenian period, wrote the world's earliest monograph on mechanics, Physics. He believed that the natural motion of objects on earth was downward for the heavier and upward for the lighter, and that external forces were required to change this natural state. With regard to free fall, he concluded that heavier objects fall faster, on the grounds that the force with which it rushes away from the medium is greater. Aristotle's study of physics was not based on experiments and was purely philosophical, and thus most of his conclusions were incorrect. It was not until the birth of modern mechanics that his errors were corrected. Alexandrian Archimedes was not only a mathematician, but also the most accomplished physicist in ancient Greece, known as the "father of mechanics". His achievements in statics, such as proving the principle of the lever by logical methods and giving mathematical expressions, discovering the law of floating bodies, and proposing a method for calculating the center of gravity of an object, reached the highest level in the world at that time. He also invented a lot of machinery, including screw water lifter, stone throwing machine and other more complex production tools and weapons. Archimedes' contribution lies not only in the scientific and technological achievements he made, but also in his scientific research methods. He focused on logical argumentation and mathematical calculations, as well as observation and experimentation, which provided a good model for later modern scientific research. Optical research achievements, when the first Euclid, he wrote the "optics" and "on the mirror" two books are considered to be the earliest optical monographs.

Biology and medicine. Ancient Greek scholars also observed and explored the phenomenon of life, such as some people have put forward the "people are changed from fish, because people in the embryo is very much like a fish," the view that this is a primitive idea of biological evolution. Aristotle was the ancient Greek scholar who made the greatest contribution to biology. He pioneered the methods of dissection and observation in the history of biology. He recorded nearly 500 species of animals, personally dissected 50 of them, and created eight classifications based on morphological, embryonic, and anatomical differences. Ancient Greek medical knowledge spread from Egypt and the Two Rivers Valley, and professional physicians appeared in the 5th century BC. Alcamond of the Pythagorean school (between the 6th and 5th centuries B.C.), known as the "father of medicine," discovered the optic nerve and the Eustachian tube, which connects the ear to the mouth, and realized that the brain is the organ of sensation and thought. Hippocrates (about 460 to 377 BC) was the most famous doctor in ancient Greece. He founded the medical theory of "four body fluids", which believed that the human body contains yellow bile, black bile, blood and mucus, and that the coordination of the four body fluids would make a person healthy, and that the imbalance of the four body fluids would result in diseases. He described many medical and surgical diseases and their treatments, and made the first detailed clinical records in the history of medicine. Hippocrates attached great importance to medical ethics, and his "doctor's oath" still exists.

Craft technology. Due to geographical constraints, the Greek native agriculture is not developed. Cultivation of olive and grape-based, handicrafts and commercial activities play an important role. Athens is the most famous industrial and commercial center. Pottery, grass, oil, brewing, shipbuilding, furniture making, etc. are the main handicraft industry in ancient Greece. Each industry had a fine division of labor, reflecting its technological progress. One of the shipbuilding technology is quite advanced, the 5th century BC, the general merchant ships up to 250 tons, and can make oars and sails with large warships.

Many of the stone buildings of ancient Greece still exist today. Such as built in the 5th century BC Temple of Athena Department of white marble masonry, the upper floor of the pedestal area of 2,800 square meters, surrounded by corridors on the 46 high 10. 4 meters high on the large columns. Alexandria was the world's most magnificent city, its north-south and east-west two central avenues are up to 90 meters wide, the port there is a lighthouse built in 279 BC, the tower is more than 120 meters high, the tower light can make 60 miles away from the ship to see the light. All these show the high level of construction technology of the ancient Greeks. The ancient Greeks imported iron smelting technology from West Asia earlier, and there were iron tools in the 16th to 12th centuries BC. To the 9th to the 6th century BC, iron tools have been widely used, people have mastered the iron pieces of the wrestling fire, welding and wrought iron carburization method of steel and other technologies.

(D) Ancient Roman agro-industrial technology and primitive science

Late in the 7th century BC, the Italian Peninsula, the ancient Romans established a city-state of slavery. In the 2nd to 1st centuries B.C., the Romans conquered Macedonia and the Ptolemaic dynasty of the Greeks, and became a great empire spanning Europe, Asia, and Africa. The 1st to 2nd century AD was the heyday of the Roman Empire. It declined in the 3rd century A.D. and was divided into East and West in 395 A.D. West Rome was destroyed by the Germans in the north in 476 A.D., which marked the end of slavery in Europe. Eastern Rome evolved into the feudal Byzantine Empire. Ancient Roman rulers were busy with conquests and dealing with the vast political affairs of the huge empire, and seldom cared about the original scientific theories and academic issues. The Roman Empire in the 1st to 2nd centuries was very prosperous economically and had considerable technical achievements. But in the original scientific theory, compared with the ancient Greeks, the Romans are much inferior. Lightweight theoretical thinking, favoring practical application, so that the ancient Greek tradition of scientific research in the Roman Empire period was interrupted.

The original science of ancient Rome. After the Romans conquered the territory of the Greeks, the scientific activities of some scholars continued. Therefore, in the pre-Roman Empire, bearing the remnants of ancient Greek culture, there are still some scientific achievements came out. (1) Ptolemy's Astronomy. Ptolemy (about 85-168) was a scientist who lived in Alexandria under the rule of the Romans. He was the successor and master of ancient Greek astronomy. He added circular orbits to Hipparch's geocentric model of the universe, and constructed a ****complex model with 80 principal and equal wheels. Ptolemy's system is very consistent with the actual observation results, and thus was adopted by the Western astronomical community for more than a thousand years, until the modern Gosu?i put forward heliocentric theory it was replaced. Ptolemy's book "Astronomy," a book, became a masterpiece in the history of astronomy, later translated by the Arabs, renamed "to the great theory". Ptolemy also made a mark in mathematics, proving many spherical triangle theorems related to astronomical calculations. He was also the author of the 8-volume book Geography. (2) Pliny the Elder's Natural History. Pliny the Elder (23-79) was a Roman scholar who wrote extensively throughout his life, the most famous of which is the 37-volume tome Natural History. The book included much from astronomy, geography, biology, medicine to practical crafts and arts, and was an encyclopedia during the Roman Empire. The Natural History was actually a compilation of excerpts from a number of ancient Greek writings, for which Pliny the Elder read more than 2,000 works. The book was not academically innovative, but it preserved a great deal of ancient information, reflecting the extent of scientific and technological knowledge acquired by the people at that time, and thus had its significance in the history of science and technology. (3) Gallen's "Three Auras". Medicine as a practical discipline, in ancient Rome is still relatively valued. Roman doctors inherited the ancient Greek medical tradition, some aspects such as surgery, pharmacology and other aspects of the larger development. Ancient Rome's most famous medical doctor is Gallen (129 ~ 199), he practiced medicine for many years, and later did the Roman emperor's imperial physician. He created the "Three Auras" to explain the physiological process of the human body: food and nutrition in the liver into a deep red venous blood mixed with the "natural aura", which is driven by the right side of the heart through the veins to the whole body, and then from the original way back to the heart; part of the blood will flow from the right side of the heart through the septum to the whole body; part of the blood will flow from the right side of the heart through the septum to the whole body. blood will flow from the right side of the heart into the left side of the heart through the tiny holes in the diaphragm, and then flow through the lungs and contact with the air, and then take on the "vitality aura" and turn into bright red arterial blood, which is driven by it to flow through the arteries to the whole body, and then return to the heart from the original way; and the "vitality aura" in arterial blood flowing through the brain will turn into "vitality aura" and become "vitality aura" and "vitality aura". The "vitality aura" in the arterial blood flowing through the brain turns into "soul aura" which passes through the nervous system to the whole body and governs the sensation and movement of the human body. Gallant's "three qi said" is mostly speculative component, contains a lot of fallacies, but after all, it is a more systematic doctrine on the physiological process of the human body. It has long been regarded as an authoritative medical theory in the West, and was not replaced until the 17th century when the doctrine of blood circulation was established. Galen wrote 131 works, 87 of which have survived to the present day.

Techniques of Ancient Rome. Ancient Greece emphasized theoretical studies, but scholars did not treat technology as learning. Despise the pure theory and focus on technology in ancient Rome, but some scholars to systematically study the technology, wrote some very valuable technical monographs. (1) Gatto's "On Agriculture". The Italian Peninsula has developed agriculture, and the agricultural technology of the Romans was very advanced at that time. Gatto, who served as an ombudsman (234~149 BC), wrote the book On Agriculture, which is considered to be the earliest agronomical work in the West. The book contains many agricultural production techniques and agronomic knowledge, as well as the management of farms. A little later, Varro (116 ~ 27 BC) also wrote a book "On Agriculture", which also has a certain status in the history of agronomy. (2) Vitruvio's On Architecture. Rome became a powerful country created a variety of buildings, from many of the surviving remains can be seen at the time of construction technology. Such as the Roman gladiator arena plane for the oval, long and short diameter of 188 meters and 156 meters, respectively, the height of the outer wall of 48.5 meters, can accommodate 5 to 80,000 spectators. Ancient Rome's waterway construction is also a huge and spectacular project. Capital of Rome waterway **** there are 9, a total length of more than 90 kilometers. The Romans also built many roads and bridges on the vast territory of the empire, constituting the so-called "all roads lead to Rome" of the well-connected transportation network. Vitruvio (1st century BC) is a famous architect in ancient Rome, he summarized the architectural experience since ancient Greece, wrote the world's first architectural monograph, "On Architecture", which involves the general theory of architecture, design principles, the education of architects and building construction and other aspects of the problem. The book had a profound impact on Western architecture. Served as a waterway engineering officer Frantinou also wrote several engineering works. (3) Technical inventions of Heron. Heron (1st century A.D.) was a famous scholar and engineer at the beginning of the Roman Empire, who made many inventions and wrote many works. He built complex pulley systems, blowers, mileage meters, siphons, collimators, and many other mechanical devices. He also invented a steam recoil ball, which he presented to the emperor as a toy. This was the earliest technological device to convert thermal energy into mechanical energy, and was the prototype of the modern steam turbine and modern steam-jet power, but it was never put to practical use. Heron was also skilled in mathematics and wrote a commentary on the Principia Geometria, proving a number of theorems. The formula S = √s(s-a) (s-c)(s-c)(s-c) (a, b, C is the length of the three sides, s is half of the perimeter ) is Heron was the first to arrive at.

The ancient Greco-Romans created the highest achievements in science and technology in the original Western slave societies. These achievements became the source of Western technological civilization. Ancient Greeks focused on the theoretical exploration of the natural world, the initial use of logical reasoning, mathematical operations and observation and experimentation combined with scientific research methods; the ancient Romans focused on the practical application of scientific knowledge and the theoretical summarization of technical issues, these fine traditions of modern science and technology later on the emergence of the development of the role of inspiration and demonstration of a very important role.