Who knows the history of the development of medicine?

Medicine has developed from primitive society to the present day after a long and complex road, its development is subject to the level of productive forces and the constraints of the relations of production, but also with the progress of natural science and technology and the development of philosophical thought has a close relationship.　Archaeologists have discovered that the Yuanmou apes unearthed in Yunnan, China, 1.72 million years ago, could use stone tools and fire. The use of fire not only separates humans from animals, but also has great significance for hygiene. In the long process of relying on plants for their livelihood, human beings gradually familiarized themselves with the nutritional, toxic and therapeutic effects of plants. The ancient Chinese term for a book of medicines, Ben Cao, and the English term for drugs, drug (i.e., dried grasses and trees), suggest that medicines have their origins in plants. It is thought that the first known drugs were analgesics (Solanaceae) and plants that stimulate the digestive system. The drugs discovered varied from region to region; the Chinese found rhubarb to have a laxative effect and ephedra to stop asthma; the Peruvians used cinchona to treat fever.　Due to the advancement of production tools and the invention of the bow and arrow, human beings started hunting and animal husbandry. With the development of hunting and animal husbandry, on the one hand, there is a rudimentary rescue method for injuries, such as trauma, fractures, dislocations treatment; at the same time, human beings have recognized the nutritional value of animals, animal medicine (such as fat, blood, bone marrow, and a variety of organs, such as liver) also appeared with the emergence. The animal husbandry economy in turn led shepherds to observe the effects of plants on animals, which in turn contributed to the knowledge of plant medicines. For example, according to Greek historians, shepherds had discovered quinoa.　The emergence of pottery and clay vessels made it possible to boil and roast medicines. In short, when there are human beings, there is medicine. The origin of medicinal knowledge is the accumulation of collective human experience, which arose in the struggle against disease. The process of developing simple medical knowledge into medicine and pharmacology later on is closely related to the local philosophical thinking at that time, such as Chinese medicine influenced by the yin and yang and five elements thinking, Greek medicine influenced by the four elements thinking and so on.　Ancient medicine initially arose in slave states on both sides of the great river basins. The Egyptians created their cultural endeavors in the Nile Valley, the Babylonians in the Tigris and Euphrates Valleys, the Indians in the Indus and Ganges Valleys, and the Chinese in the Yellow River Valley.　In slave societies, productivity took a giant step forward from primitive societies. Slave labor made possible the division of labor and created the conditions for the further development of culture and science, which led to the emergence of the "professional doctor" in slave societies. One of the outstanding cultural achievements of the slave society was the invention of writing. With writing, the ancient slave states were able to leave behind a large number of medical documents.　With the development and consolidation of slave societies, the religious aspects of medicine increased. China's "Classic of Mountains and Seas" records: "Wu Peng", "Wu Dai", "Wu Yang" and so on are divine doctors; India, Egypt, Babylonian medicine is also shrouded in a strong religious color. Most of the medical literature of the slave society came from the hands of monks. Therefore, these documents contain many superstitious elements.　Egyptian medicine about 4000 to 3000 years BC, Egypt has formed a slave society, there has been a considerable development of culture. They believed that everything belonged to God, so the monks were also responsible for removing disasters and diseases, and religious and non-religious empirical medicine were mixed with each other. They used emetic, cathartic, diuretic, and sweating methods in order to expel demons from the body, and enemas were known. The Egyptian rich because of the superstition of the dead body will be permanently preserved, since about 3000 BC has been practiced since the drying of the body method, the use of spices and medicines to smear the body, is the "mummy". This is a great help to the understanding of the human body structure, and become a valuable material for modern research on ancient pathology, in addition to the Egyptian ancient medical books written in papyrus, existing 5, 6 kinds. Famous British archaeologist F. Petrie in 1888 ~ 1890 in Egypt found in the Kahan papyrus, written in 2000 ~ 1800 BC, is gynecology; Smith's papyrus written about 1700 BC, is the surgical; Ebbers' papyrus written about 1550 BC, is the general theory of medicine.　Medicine in India India formed a slavery society in the late 4000 to early 3000 BC. The Atharva Veda, which documents medicine and hygiene, is a later (6th century BCE) work. According to historical records, surgery was well developed in India, with amputation, ophthalmologic surgery, nose formation, fetal foot reversal, and Caesarean section being performed by about the 4th century A.D. at the latest; and the Indians used animal and mineral medicines in addition to plant medicines. As there are many poisonous snakes, there are also doctors in India who specialize in treating snake bites.　Indian medicine believes that health is the result of the normal cooperation of the three original substances of the body -- gas, mucus and bile. Later, the "four limbs of the liquid theory" of Greek medicine influenced India, so that the original three body fluids added blood, becoming the "four big" doctrine.　The most famous surgeon in ancient India was Miaowen (born in the 5th century B.C.), and the most famous physician was Jaloka (born in the 1st century A.D.).　Babylonian and Assyrian Medicine In the late 3000s and early 2000s B.C., in the central part of the Two River Valley, Babylon formed a slave state. It was not until 700 BC that Assyria conquered Babylon.　Babylonian and Assyrian astrology, was closely related to medicine. They believed that the body structure, in line with the operation of the celestial bodies, this concept of the human body is a small universe, quite similar to ancient China. They valued the liver as the main organ of the body, and used it for divination (hepatic divination), examining the livers of animals used in sacrifices with great care. In about 1700 B.C., there was already a Code of Laws formulated by Hammurabi, the king of Babylon, which contained provisions on medical law and was the earliest medical law in the world. It states, "If a slave dies or is blinded by a doctor's operation, the doctor is required to compensate the slave owner for all or half of the slave's worth, and if the blinded or dead person is a gentleman, both of the doctor's hands are cut off as a punishment." In Babylon, as in Egypt, there were two kinds of physicians, monks, whose cure was incantations and prayers, and physicians of practical experience, who were commoners.　Medicine in Ancient Greece 7 ~ 6 centuries BC, Greece from the primitive clan society into slavery, the Greeks absorbed the cultural strengths of Egypt, Babylon, plus their own creation, in all aspects of culture and science have high achievements. Greek medicine was the basis for the development of medicine in Rome and all over Europe. Until now, the medical symbols used by Europeans: the cane and the snake, that is, originated from the Greek god of medicine, Asclepius. Many ancient Greek medical terms are still used today.　In the 5th century BC, Empedocles proposed that all objects are composed of "four elements", fire, air (wind), water and earth (earth), which are mixed in different proportions to become various properties of the object, which is similar to the Chinese five elements. Muscles, for example, are made by mixing four elements in equal parts; nerves are made by combining fire and earth with water in double letters; and bone is made by mixing two parts water, two parts earth, and four parts water.　Greek medicine was represented by Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 377 BC). The work bearing his name, the Hippocratic Anthology, which probably includes many later contributions, is now the most important text for the study of Greek medicine.　The Hippocratic school developed the theory of the four elements into the "theory of the pathology of the four humors". They believed that the life of the organism was determined by the four humors: blood, mucus, yellow bile and black bile, and that the four humors were based on different combinations of the four elements, each of which corresponded to a certain "temperament", and that the temperament of each person was determined by the dominant humors in his body. For example, heat is the basis of blood, from the heart, if the blood is dominant, it belongs to the polycythemia. When the four humors are balanced, the body is healthy; when they are out of balance, it is sickly.　The Hippocratic school tended to recognize the physiological processes of the organism from a unified whole. They said: "Diseases begin in the whole body ...... Individual parts of the body immediately and successively give rise to diseases in other parts, the waist gives rise to diseases of the head, and the head gives rise to diseases of the muscles and the abdomen ......, and these parts are interconnected of ...... can spread all changes to all parts."　The Hippocratic school also paid attention to the influence of external factors on disease and had a more explicit idea of prevention. They taught young doctors, when entering a city they had not visited, to study the climate, soil, water, and lifestyle of the inhabitants of that city, etc. As a doctor, the only way to do good medical work in a city was to study the conditions of life in the city beforehand.　They asked doctors not to interfere with the "natural" course of pathological changes, but to work on the basis of medical knowledge and in consideration of nature.　There are many places in the Collected Works of Hippocrates where the issue of medical ethics is discussed, the famous one being the Hippocratic Oath, which was later sworn by Europeans after they studied medicine.　After the 4th century B.C., Greek medicine declined and the center of medicine shifted to Hellenistic Alexandria. The physician Herophilus of Alexandria (335-280 BC) had taken note of anatomy. Also, pharmacology developed during this period.　Medicine in Ancient Rome Rome was a large, centralized empire, and the organization of the state was demonstrated first and foremost by the presence of a standing army. In order to maintain the combat effectiveness of the army, the Roman Empire has a military medical institutions; in order to prevent epidemics, the Roman Empire has a "medical governor" position, as the official of the government administration. They were also responsible for holding exams and approving government-licensed medical practitioners.　Rome also had a high level of public **** hygiene, the use of slave labor to build the city's waterways (Rome's drinking water from nine waterways with pipes from outside the city into), sewers and baths. The famous "Twelve Bronze Tables" also prohibited burials in the city and pointed out the need to pay attention to drinking water hygiene.　The development of medicine in the Roman era was linked to that of the ancient Greek era. In the 2nd century B.C., the Romans took up the position of the "Greeks" and the "Greeks". Born in Rome to many, such as Rome's most famous doctor Galen (about 129 ~ 199), origin is Greece, he was very knowledgeable about the writings of Hippocrates.　Galen's views were mixed with the "teleological" view, that is, everything in nature has a purpose, and the structure of human beings is also due to the purpose of the Creator. He said that the left wall of the heart was thicker and heavier than the right wall to control the vertical position of the heart, and that the walls of the arteries were dense to better keep the tiny gases inside them from escaping. This doctrine of Divine Destiny was followed as a dogma by later generations and hindered the development of science. In treatment he gave importance to medicinal treatment. He proved that herbs contain active ingredients that should be utilized and harmful ingredients that should be discarded. He had his own special pharmacy, where a large number of botanical medicines were used to prepare pills, powders, ointments, infusions, decoctions, tinctures, lotions, and other preparations in various dosage forms, which were stockpiled and ready for use. To this day, pharmacy preparations are still referred to as "Galen preparations".　Medicine in Medieval Europe In 395 B.C., the Roman Empire was divided. The Western Roman Empire fell to the barbarians (Germans, Franks, Visigoths, Vandals, etc.) in the 5th century and split into several barbarian kingdoms. In Europe, the period from the 6th century to the 13th and 14th centuries A.D. is known as the Dark Ages, and there was very little cultural progress; however, the Eastern Roman Empire was preserved under the name of Byzantium. The Byzantine culture was the successor of the Greco-Roman culture, and at that time, there were medical schools, hospitals and pharmacies. Byzantine medical doctors, mostly compilers of medical encyclopedias, collected and systematized the rich heritage of ancient medicine. Byzantium was not overthrown by Turkey until the 15th century.　Medieval Europe was in a period of economic and cultural decline, the pope and the king competed with each other for the right to rule, the Catholic Church held almost 1/3 of the land in Europe, the church became the largest feudal lord, and monasteries flourished. In terms of culture and thought, medieval Europe was almost completely ruled by the Church. Theology permeated all intellectual sectors, and medicine was also mastered by monks, who were the only ones who knew Latin and preserved some of the knowledge of medicine handed down from ancient times; they saw patients and prayed for them, which became the so-called "monastic medicine". The association of healing with "divine miracles" hindered the development of medicine.　The 11th century crusades, urban development, commercial travel, etc. to expand the horizons of Europeans, but also stimulate the development of scientific knowledge, 11 to 13 centuries, many cities in Europe established universities. One of the most famous medical school belongs to the two universities of Salerno and Padua, which were least influenced by scriptural philosophy, and played a progressive role in the European Middle Ages.　In the Middle Ages, the main subject of the university was Transcendental Philosophy, which basically consisted of explaining or arguing for the authenticity of the Bible. At that time, the study of medicine mainly studied the writings of Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna, memorized the dogma of authoritative writings and ignored the practice, so the progress of medicine was very small.　In addition, the spread of epidemics was rampant in medieval Europe, with bubonic plague, leprosy, and later syphilis being the most prevalent. Leprosy in the 13th century was the most rampant in Europe, on average, every 400 people have a patient, after a strict isolation to stop the spread, which also contributed to the establishment of European hospitals. 1346 European bubonic plague pandemic, prompting the port of Venice quarantine, and later London, Paris, etc., also promulgated a number of regulations to prevent infectious diseases.　Arab medicine in the 7th and 8th centuries, many countries and regions (or formerly belonged to the Byzantine Empire), such as Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor, North Africa, and the Pyrenees Peninsula belonged to the feudal Islamic power, the so-called "Arab Caliphate". Arabia inherited the ancient Greco-Roman culture, and at the same time, it had frequent commercial transportation with the East, and absorbed the culture of India and China. Therefore, it served as a bridge between the cultures of the peoples of Europe and Asia. The main works of philosophy, science and medicine in Greek and Latin were translated into Arabic. Arabia had great achievements in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, agriculture, architecture, and medicine.　Arabic medicine refers to traditional medicine in the region where the Arabic language is spoken. Medicine was well developed in this region from the 8th to 12th centuries AD. Arabia was very successful in chemistry, pharmacology and the art of preparing medicines. Chemistry at that time was known as "alchemy". The purpose of alchemy was twofold: first, to turn base metals into precious metals; and second, to make medicine for immortality.　Although the purpose of alchemy is absurd, but countless tests, the establishment of some of the basic principles of chemistry, found many substances useful to mankind and medically useful compounds, but also designed and improved a lot of experimental methods, such as distillation, sublimation, crystallization, filtration and so on. These have greatly enriched the methods of pharmaceutical preparation and have contributed to the development of the pharmacy business.　Avicenna (980-1037) was a great physician of the Middle Ages and one of the outstanding physicians in the history of medicine in the world; he was also a famous encyclopedist and thinker. His most famous medical work was the Canon of Medicine, which was translated into Latin several times, and for a long time the Canon of Medicine was a must-read guide book for the study of medicine.　In terms of treatment, Avicenna attached great importance to medication, and in the Canon of Medicine he devoted a great deal of space to the discussion of medication. He used not only Greek and Indian medicines, but also Chinese medicines. He also used mud therapy, hydrotherapy, sun therapy and air therapy. In diagnosis, he paid much attention to pulse cutting, and he distinguished between 48 types of pulse. Through Arabia, Chinese medicine was also introduced to the West.