Did the Ming civilization promote Confucianism?

From the overthrow of the Mongols to the emergence of the *** and the state, the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) dynasties ruled China for more than 500 years. These centuries constituted a great period in human history of orderly administration and peaceful and stable social life. The main reason for this unprecedented and lasting stability was the absolute dominance of a new Confucian metaphysics known as "Neo-Confucianism". This revival of Confucianism took place mainly during the chaotic period following the fall of the Tang dynasty; the times clearly required something more than the rote memorization of the Confucian classics. As a result, many scholars embarked on a radical reappraisal of humanity and the universe.

The Ming government tried hard to control and oppress the merchant class. This was the fundamental and most meaningful difference between Chinese and Western society. In the West, the bourgeoisie, because of the diversity of the society in which it lived, enjoyed considerable autonomy from the outset; and this autonomy grew over time. In China, a corresponding merchant class did exist, and it was only during the Song dynasty that they enjoyed the benefits of a genuine commercial revolution. Moreover, most of the major technological inventions of the Middle Ages came out of China. However, unlike in the West, neither the commercial revolution nor technological progress had a revolutionary impact on China that revolutionized society. The fundamental reason for this is the continuity of Chinese history, i.e., the Sui dynasty was essentially a continuation of the Han dynasty, the Tang and Song dynasties were a continuation of the Sui dynasty, and so on and so forth until the end of imperial history in 1912. As a result, the traditional bureaucratic and aristocratic ruling clique, with Neo-Confucianism as its spiritual backbone, swallowed up the role of new technology and economic development. In the West, however, there was no successor to the fall of the Roman Empire. Instead a new, complex and diverse civilization emerged; one where gunpowder, the compass, the printing press and ocean-going vessels, rather than being buried, were put to good use, with an explosive impact first on Europe and then on the whole world, including China.

This explosive impact would never have been possible in China, where imperial institutions were too closed and constrained. Chinese merchants and industrialists, for example, often joined local guilds led by masters, but these guild masters were required to obtain a certificate from the government indicating their permission and were instructed to take charge of the operations of each guild member. Ship merchants were also organized under the leadership of port masters, who were likewise accountable to the government. More importantly, the government monopolized the production and distribution of many goods for the consumption of the court and the administration, including weapons, textiles, pottery, leather goods, clothing, and wine. In addition, the government had complete control over the production and distribution of basic commodities necessary for the entire population, such as salt and iron. These restrictions deprived Chinese merchants of the opportunity to become unfettered entrepreneurs, depriving the economy of the possibility of free development; they also fostered corruption and degradation, as court officials could use their privileged position to manipulate the state monopoly on commodities for their personal gain.

Another internally restrictive policy of the Chinese ruling clique was its strenuous opposition to foreign operations. Chinese immigrants preceded the arrival of Europeans and slowly migrated to Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, there were probably not as many Spaniards as Chinese at any one time.In 1603, 32 years after the founding of the Spanish colony of Manila, there were about 20,000 Chinese here, compared with perhaps 10,000 Spaniards.These Chinese virtually controlled the economic life of the colony, and extended their control over the rest of the islands of the archipelago. It was in this year, 1603, that a massacre was perpetrated against the Chinese in Manila; an official in the neighboring mainland province of Fujian condoned the massacre and denounced all Chinese abroad as retrogrades from their ancestral graves, people unworthy of the emperor's concern. The Chinese in Manila and their fellow Chinese in Southeast Asia continue to be subjected to such massacres on a regular basis to this day. Similarly, in 1712, the emperor issued a royal decree prohibiting Chinese from doing business and settling in Southeast Asia. Five years later, another edict allowed those who had settled abroad to return home without fear of punishment, and in 1729, another decree was issued setting a specific date for return, and those overseas Chinese who failed to return would not be allowed to do so. This was in stark and striking contrast to the West, which was soon active in opening up overseas colonies and creating trading companies, even as it stood ready to defend these endeavors by force against any threat.

During this extraordinary period of early 15th-century history, Ming seafaring clearly proved China's leadership of the world's seafaring industry, with its outstanding technology and astonishing scope. However, the emperor issued an edict forbidding further overseas expeditions and forcing the immediate execution of this order. This was one of the starkest and most significant manifestations of China's officially negative attitude towards overseas activities.

Four: The Development of Western Civilization

The development of Western civilization differed greatly from that of the East, where civilization was y rooted and where imperial organizations penetrated far and wide, and where technological inventions were never allowed to destroy traditional institutions and customs. Technological inventions were not used for world-wide exploration, trade and empire building as in Western civilization. At the root of this major difference lay the uniqueness of the new Western civilization; it was complex, diverse, adaptable, and free from the traditional chains that bound all other civilizations in Eurasia. The result was a historic transformation. This transformation transformed not only the West but, as Bacon foresaw, the whole world when the potent expansionism of the revolutionary new society descended.