A Comparison of the Success and Failure of Reforms in China and Japan in the Modern Era Essay

Due to the expansion of Western powers to the East in the mid-to-late 19th century, both China and Japan embarked on a journey of modernization. As both countries were in a similar situation and faced similar tasks, yet the results of the quest were very different.

Differences in the social structures of the two countries are a factor that cannot be ignored.

However, the differences between the two countries in the social structure of the system of selecting officials, the structure of land ownership, and the concept of "business" are particularly prominent. This affected the process of modernization in both countries to a certain extent.

In the mid-19th century, with the expansion of the Western powers to the east, the two feudal states of East Asia, China and Japan, were forced to open their doors. The people of the two countries began to look for a remedy to save their countries and their people, and started the process of modernization of their own countries.

But the results were very different --- Japan embarked on the road of capitalism, while China remained in the abyss of semi-feudalism and semi-colonialism.

For example: "One of the reasons why Japan was more successful in entering the international community through the founding of the nation, while China went step by step towards semi-colonialism, is that the gap between China and Japan was already very wide at the stage of 'preparation for the founding of the nation' before the middle of the 19th century,

China insisted on the ideology of the Chinese barbarians and had no intention of opening up and enterprising.

China adhered to the ideology of the Chinese barbarians and had no intention of opening up and forging ahead, whereas Japan realized a shift in its geographical and cultural worldview and developed an opening force."

I. Differences in the system of selecting officials

The imperial examination system in Chinese feudal society was created in the Sui Dynasty.

The imperial examinations led to a constant renewal of members within the ruling class, allowing the upper and lower classes of society to constantly exchange ideas in a peaceful situation, thus relatively easing class conflicts. "The imperial examinations could absorb representative figures of landlords, merchants and usurers from all parts of the country, from all nationalities, and even some of the best elements of the ruled class into the central power, and broaden the class base of the regime."

Since this method of admitting talents through examinations had a rational side for the feudal system,

China

on the one hand it allowed the ruling body to be composed of the most capable people in the ruling class. This was an effective system for the feudal system.

On the other hand, a system that was effective for the maintenance of feudal society would naturally be a great obstacle to the development towards a modern society. The content of the imperial examinations is mainly adapted to the Confucian theory of "gentleman" and has a strong humanistic and ethical character. It could cultivate a group of generalists with moral character rather than one-skill talents. The general scholars paid little attention to daily life, and no matter what the circumstances, they strictly bound their words and deeds to the norms demanded by the feudal regime. As a result, the natural sciences were greatly affected. There was no innovation or development, so science and democracy paled in imperialist China.

Japan

Japan during the Tokugawa Shogunate was a strictly hierarchical society. Each of the four classes had its own identity and its own life. The hereditary system and the gate system made it impossible for the other three classes to enter the ruling class by any means. Once the development of the productive forces accelerated and the factors of commodity economy and capitalism developed to a certain extent, class relations changed. As a result, various conflicts arose and eventually led to the collapse of the feudal system. "Japan's hereditary, gatekeeper system prevented talented junior samurai from reaching the top, and at the end of the Shogunate, it pushed the junior samurai toward a break with the old political system, creating the necessary conditions for the downfall of the Shogunate and the restoration of the new government."

China's imperial examination system opened the way for small and medium-sized landowners and even common intellectuals from poor backgrounds to rise through the ranks. Chinese feudal society had a strong ability to regulate the system, and it was difficult to separate from it the forces of innovation that were opposed to it.

Therefore, the Chinese feudal system had a special kind of stability, which created a strong resistance to social change in modern China.

Japan's gate system and hereditary system prevented some lower-ranking samurai and other ranks of the lesser gentry, who were rich in talent, from having access to higher positions, from becoming dissatisfied, and ultimately taking the path of opposition to the Shogunate's rule.

The differences in the structure of land ownership

China

Since the Qin and Han dynasties, the basic form of land ownership was landlord land ownership. The tenantry system of the landlord's economy was practiced, and this system has been the main form of exploitation in feudal China. Under this system, the producers were peasant farmers and tenant farmers rather than peasants, and on the surface the personal dependence of peasants on landlords under the landlord system in ancient Chinese society did not appear to be too tight; peasants and landlords were legally equal and were free to enter into or dissolve tenancy agreements between them. Because the feudal relationship in that system was more flexible, it was difficult to separate dissident forces as in Japan.

Japan

Located on the edge of the East Asian feudal agrarian economic sphere, Japan, in turn, practiced a lordship system similar to the Western European feudal land system. The lords exploited the peasants in a hyper-economic and coercive manner and "serfed" them. It is clear that under such a strong feudal relationship, it was easier to separate the forces of dissent.

Three, the reforms of China and Japan took place in different times and international environments

Japan

The Meiji Restoration (1868) was in the era of international liberal capitalism, an important feature of which was free competition. At that time, the means of aggression of the Western powers was mainly the export of commodities, the occupation of the markets of the invaded countries, and the plundering of raw materials, thus making huge profits. This provided a more relaxed international environment for the series of reform measures of the Meiji Restoration in Japan (mainly measures for the development of capitalist industry and commerce).

China

The Hundred Days Reform (1898) took place in the era of monopoly capitalism, i.e., the era of imperialism, an important feature of which was the export of capital, the opening of mines, the construction of factories, the building of railroads, the running of banks in the invaded countries, the control of the economic lifeblood of the country, and at the same time, the territorial occupation of the invaded countries and their division. At that time, China's vast territory, rich in natural resources, but under the rule of the corrupt Qing government accumulated poverty and weakness, is the focus of Western invasion of the object, especially after the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, first of all, Japan, followed by Britain, France, the United States, Russia and other countries have invested in China to build factories, open mines. Foreign enterprises made use of their strong economic strength, advanced production equipment and technology, as well as all kinds of privileges obtained from the Qing government, plundered China's resources and labor force, and frantically occupied China's commodity market. The Chinese national capitalism produced in the late foreign affairs movement, the power is extremely weak, can not compete with it, the implementation of China's Hundred Days' Reform will not have a loose international environment and conditions.

Four, Emperor Meiji and Emperor Guangxu's personal conditions are also different

Japan

After the Meiji Restoration, with the establishment of the emperor system, Emperor Meiji became the nation's largest zaibatsu and landlords, and became Japan's highest ruler in name only. His early participation in politics and his inspirational efforts, aided and abetted by powerful reformist ministers on both his left and right, allowed him to make good use of his ruling talents.

China

The Guangxu Emperor, though ambitious and rich in youthful sensitivity and enthusiasm, actively supported the Hundred Days' Reform in politics, and became the political icon of the reformists for a time. But he grew up in the palace, his whole life can not jump out of the palm of the Nara.

Fifth, Britain and the United States and other powers of different levels of support

Britain and the United States of the Meiji Restoration competition to foster, and give direct material and military assistance.

Japan embarked on the road of the Restoration and got rid of the fate of the dying country, and became the only strong country in the non-Western countries. However, Japan went astray by choosing the wrong role model to learn from the West. After the Meiji Restoration, the new regime was in a hurry and sent a delegation to Europe to study the systems of various countries in order to plan a blueprint for Japan. The delegation came to the conclusion that everything should be modeled after Germany. The reason was that Germany was relatively backward and was close to Japan's "national conditions". The result was that Japan adopted the German military system, which put the army directly under the command of the Emperor; at the same time, it followed the German constitution and formulated an imperial constitution in which the government was not accountable to the Diet, and the Diet had neither financial nor military power, which ultimately turned Japan into a militaristic monster like the German Empire. In fact, as a latecomer to modernization, the German Empire was only a "quasi-modern" society that had not yet been fully developed, and the Meiji regime intentionally removed some important parts of "Western civilization" that did not fit "Japan's situation". "The Meiji regime intentionally eliminated some important parts of Western civilization that did not fit Japan's situation, which were the essence of modern civilization, and this was a great mistake.

The process of disintegration of the natural economy of feudalism in China was slower than in Japan, the differentiation of the feudal camps in China did not reach the level of Japan, the degree of centralization was higher than in Japan, and the spread of Western learning was not as wide and deep as in Japan. In a word, the Chinese society before the Hundred Days Reform, whether in politics, economy, class relations, or in the field of ideology and culture have not formed like Japan as enough to overturn the old state system of historical conditions, the feudal forces in various fields still hold the absolute advantage, which is the Hundred Days Reform can not be like the Japanese Meiji Restoration as the main reason for the success of the Reform. This is the main reason why the Hundred Days' Reform could not be as successful as the Meiji Restoration in Japan. It fully embodied the special stubbornness of the feudal system in China, which was the fundamental reason for the slow development of Chinese society in modern times. In such national conditions and historical conditions launched the Hundred Days Reform, its failure is inevitable.

Sixth, Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War is a test of the results of modern reform of China and Japan.

Process

In March 1895, China's Beiyang Minister Li Hongzhang, governor-general of Zhili, signed a humiliating and unequal treaty with the Japanese government, the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Shimonoseki.

The treaty stipulated that (i) China recognized Japan's rights and interests in Korea; (ii) China ceded the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan; and (iii) China compensated Japan for its military expenditures in the amount of 200 million taels of silver (together with the redemption of 30 million taels of the Liaodong Peninsula***230 million taels).

The Sino-Japanese War defeat and the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki led China to a deeper disaster.

1, 230 million taels of silver of the huge war reparations Qing government simply can not afford, can only be to the British, French, German and Russian powers to loan, not only interest is very high, but also to the customs, taxes, the management of the treasury as a collateral, so that the country's economic lifeline is completely foreign manipulation.

2. The cession of large areas of land directly led to the imperialist powers set off a frenzy to divide China. In the years after the war, the great powers divided their spheres of influence in China. North of the Great Wall belongs to Russia, the Yangtze River Basin ten provinces belong to the British, Shandong belongs to Germany, Yunnan, the two provinces belong to France, Fujian Taiwan belongs to Japan. The United States, a latecomer to imperialism, sought greater rights and interests in China by supporting Japan under the banner of "equal benefit". After the war, Korea became a Japanese colony and a springboard for Japanese aggression against China, and the security of northeastern China was seriously threatened.

Japan was the biggest beneficiary of the Sino-Japanese War, receiving 100 million taels of silver worth of booty and 230 million taels of reparations. The reparations were mainly used to expand the army and prepare for war, as Japan was moving towards militarism and had already established a "continental policy" of annexing Korea, China, and Southeast Asia, and then dominating the world. After the Sino-Japanese War, Japan's economic and military power expanded rapidly, to win the Russo-Japanese War to create the conditions, but also for the 30s of the last century to invade China laid the groundwork.

The Sino-Japanese War defeat and the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki plunged China into a deep national crisis, facing a life-and-death situation. In China's modern anti-aggression war, Sino-Japanese War can be said to be the largest, the most tragic defeat, the deepest impact, the heaviest consequences, the most lessons of the war.

Maximum scale: the Sino-Japanese War was much larger than the First Opium War, the Second Opium War, the Russo-Chinese War, and the Sino-French War that had occurred since 1840. From Japan is a long-planned, after a long time to prepare for a war of aggression, lifting the whole country; from China is passive, have no choice but to resist, but also invested in the sea and land forces. Sino-Japanese War from July 1894 to October 1895, lasted more than a year, from the sea to land, from Korea to China, after the Battle of Liaodong, Battle of Shantung, the defense of Taiwan and other major battles, the scale of the war is the largest in modern Chinese history.

The most tragic failure: the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese army repeatedly defeated, the main force of the army was routed, the main force of the Navy was eliminated, Lushun, Dalian, Weihai and other important military bases were occupied by the Japanese, a complete loss of the will to resist and the power of the war, and finally had to surrender on bended knee to a complete defeat and ended.

The deepest impact, the heaviest consequences: in the Japan thus rose at the same time, China further slipped into the abyss of colonization, facing the danger of the end of the country. Of course, the defeat of the Sino-Japanese War also inspired the awakening of the Chinese nation and the rise of the Chinese people. In the year of the Sino-Japanese War defeat, Kang Youwei launched the "petition on the bus", which started the prelude to the Hundred Days' Reform. The following year, Dr. Sun Yat-sen staged an uprising in Guangzhou, marking the beginning of the bourgeois revolution.

The most important lesson: China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War was not due to the disparity in military power, but to a variety of reasons. China and Japan, the two had a starting line in a country, in a few decades there is a huge gap, never by chance, the Sino-Japanese War victory or defeat is not only strategic and tactical reasons can be fully explained, and has its own deep socio-political reasons, this reason we have to be from the Sino-Japanese War in the decades before the different reform routes in China and Japan to the different effects of different to explore.

Seven, after the Opium War, China delayed 20 years, but Japan seized the opportunity

China

Western powers in the completion of the Industrial Revolution and the capitalist revolution, the urgent need for the export of commodities and the export of capital, the competition for the market evolved into the competition for colonies, China and Japan have become the object of the slaughter of the Great Powers. China was invaded more than 10 years earlier than Japan. The First Opium War between China and Britain was in 1840, while the American warships visited Japan in 1854, and this period of more than 10 years was very crucial. Unfortunately, in the first opium war to the second opium war of nearly 20 years, China did not really wake up, did not see the challenge as an opportunity, the pressure into power, still sleeping in the "dynasty of the country" in the dream, stubbornly self-centered, closed eyes and ears, to the world trend of a blank slate. Until the outbreak of the Second Opium War in 1860, the British and French allied forces easily into Beijing, a fire burned the Yuanmingyuan, the emperor and the civil and military officials could only flee, which made the Chinese dynasty and the countryside was greatly shaken. From this time onwards, a wave of thoughts for change emerged in Chinese society and was put into practice, which was the foreign affairs movement.

Japan

In Japan a different situation to that of China arose. Japan was a weak island nation, and its sense of worry and crisis was much stronger than China's. The first Opium War took place in China. The first Opium War took place in China and failed to make China realize, but Japan drew a lesson from it. The First Opium War brought a great shock to Japan. Japan's learned people seriously summarize the lessons of China's failure, some believe that China's political corruption, martial arts are not repaired; some believe that China does not know the external situation, blind arrogance. Japan also sent a delegation to China to study, further understanding of the actual situation in China, participated in the study of the dignitaries GaoSuJinZuo said: "consider the reason for its so weak, is that he does not know to prevent barbarians in the overseas way ...... because of the complacency, the empty years, do not take countermeasures to change the heart of the peace categorically, do not make warships and cannons! The reason is that they do not know how to defend themselves against the enemy outside their country, so they are declining. Therefore, if I do not want to make the same mistake as Japan, it is advisable to build steamships quickly." This is simply to China as the opposite of the instructor view. Japan on the basis of summarizing the lessons of China, combined with the world and Japan's situation, a strong sense of change, they will learn from the goal of China to the Netherlands, because the Netherlands was one of the world's strongest countries, so the rise of Japan's "Orchidology". The scholarly class used the Dutch language to learn the advanced science and technology of Europe.

Japan's reforms began in the 1850s. At that time, the central government of Japan was called the Shogunate, and there were some relatively independent local authorities called "han", so the reform at that time was called the Shogunate reform, which provided the material and ideological basis for the deep reform of the "Meiji Restoration". Japan's worries came true in 1853, when an American naval fleet led by Commodore Perry came to Japan, which was called the "Black Ship Incident" because of the black hulls of the warships. The U.S. demanded of Japan what Britain had demanded of China during the Opium War. Japan did not resist and accepted the American conditions, signing the first unequal treaty, the Japan-U.S. Treaty of Kanagawa. Japan suffered a great existential crisis and an opportunity to abandon the old for the new and accelerate the pace of reform. It is also telling that Wei Yuan's writings were not accepted in China, but were highly regarded in Japan.

The above shows that China and Japan were very different from each other at the initial stage of reform, and gradually distanced themselves from each other. This tells us that, in the face of the impact of various pressures, we must enhance the sense of anxiety and sense of urgency, sense of crisis, and have the confidence and determination to meet the challenges, to grasp the world trend, conform to the trend of the times, and seize the historical opportunity to promote reform in a timely and decisive manner.

VIII, foreign study

Japan

Iwakura mission consists of more than 50 people, many of them are the core of the government, such as four deputy ambassador a Daizo Secretary Okubo Toshimichi, a Cabinet Counselor Kido Takayoon, which was then known as the Meiji Restoration two of the three masters, there are also two deputy ambassadors Ito Hirobumi and Yamaguchi Shangfang, Ito Hirobumi later served as a longtime Ito Hirobumi, who later served as the Prime Minister of the Japanese government for a long time. The importance of the mission can be seen from the fact that when the mission was on its way, the other head of the Meiji government at the time, Minister of Taiji, Sanjo Minoromi, said, "Internal affairs, diplomacy, the future of the great cause, success or failure is at stake".

The mission set out in November 1871, to return in September 1873, lasted 1 year and 10 months, visited 12 countries in Europe and the United States, wrote nearly a hundred volumes of factual records. The scale of this expedition, the high specification, the long time, the harvest, not only is Japan's history of unprecedented diplomatic feat, but also the world's diplomatic history of a great spectacle.

The mission's task was to focus on the study and research of the military, political, economic, cultural and educational systems of Western countries. The Iwakura mission had a profound impact on Japan, enabling the Meiji government to further recognize the world trend and its own development direction. After the return of the mission, the Meiji government put forward three major policies, which are civilization and enlightenment, colonization and prosperity, and national wealth and military strength. These policies gave a strong impetus to the reforms of the Meiji Restoration and the process of modernization in Japan.

China

Ironically, at almost the same time, the Qing government sent a mission to Europe and the United States, known as the Po An Chen Mission. Pope was the outgoing U.S. minister to China, and the lack of confidence and determination was evident in the fact that the Chinese mission hired a foreigner to head it. The two deputy ambassadors of the mission were a Briton and a Frenchman, and the members were all middle and lower level officials of the Qing Dynasty, the highest position being Zhigang of the Customs Department and Sun Jiangu of the Ministry of Rites, and there was not a single important official of the imperial court. The purpose of the mission was also very limited, mainly to appease the countries to maintain the peace treaty, do not put forward new demands. Such a mission was of course ineffective. Kamo Yasumi died of illness halfway through the mission, and the other members of the mission were so insignificant that they had little influence on the government's decisions and the development of the country. Iwakura mission, Po Anchen mission which is two specific things, but can be visualized that the state of China and Japan at that time is not the same, the subsequent end is inevitable.

Nine, social reform

Japan

One is the reform of the school system. Japan as early as 1871, the establishment of the Ministry of Education, embarked on modern education reform, one after another issued the "School System Order", "Education Order" and "Imperial University Order", laid down the modern school system. The implementation of compulsory education made education rapidly popularized

The second is the reform of the official system. In order to adapt to the needs of constitutional government, Japan abolished the feudal system in 1885 and replaced it with a cabinet system with a prime minister.

Thirdly, there was the reform of the military system; in 1869, the Meiji government set up the Ministry of War and carried out the reform of the military system; in 1873, conscription was introduced; and in 1875, the reform of the modern military system was largely completed, thus widening the distance between the modernization of the Chinese and Japanese militaries.

Fourth, the reform of the political system. The Constitution of the Empire of Japan was promulgated in 1889, and the first Diet was convened in 1890. The Dai Nippon Imperial Constitution was the first bourgeois constitution in Asia, a summary of the Meiji Restoration, and its promulgation, which enabled Japan to take a crucial step forward in the process of democracy and the rule of law, became an important symbol of the success of Japan's modern reforms.

China

In comparison, China during the same period had a big gap in social reform.

In terms of education, although some new schools, Li Hongzhang and other foreign affairs faction also advocated "another section to get a doctor", but did not shake and change the eight shares to get a doctor's examination system, seriously hampering the development of modern education.

In the military system, during the foreign affairs movement, in addition to the Huai army and other parts of the Qing army used some foreign guns and cannons, some new training and the establishment of a new type of naval division, the reform of the military system is very limited.

In the official system, although Li Hongzhang said in the late 1880s, "change the law must be the first easy official system," but also lamented "China's culture to keep a thousand years, who can suddenly change?" Lack of determination and courage, but also can not get support, not much practical progress. As for the implementation of constitutional government is even more the Qing rulers at that time do not dare to think, also do not want to think of things.

Ten, government-run and civilian-oriented enterprise system Impact on the process of industrialization in China and Japan

China

China's foreign affairs movement run by the enterprise, the military industry are government-run, civilian enterprises are government-run and the government supervised the two kinds of business. In the feudal system, the government-run is the enterprise governmentalization, so that the enterprise is "plagued with disease". The government supervised the business office than the government run a little better, in the early stage had also played "to open the wind" to drive the role. But for a long time, the Government also appeared in the Office of the Governor, "the official has the power, the business has no power" shortcomings, so that the enterprise is shrouded in the officialdom habits. The corruption of the late feudalism seriously corroded the enterprise, many enterprises exist in the case of fraud, mismanagement. Some foreign affairs officials see the problem, proposed to change the government-run for business, but did not get the court's approval, government-run and government supervision of the business model will inevitably give rise to a monopoly, the important enterprises in the foreign affairs movement, generally use administrative means, granting the so-called "patent", that is, within a certain range and time restrictions on the establishment of similar enterprises. Government-run plus monopoly, is the rope that binds the development of national industry and commerce. Facts have proved that, under the government-run system, this kind of monopoly privilege is "detrimental to China and beneficial to foreign countries". The problem of government-run and disguised government-run enterprises has not been resolved, affecting the effectiveness of foreign affairs, blocking the growth of some private enterprises, thus delaying the development of China's modern industry.

Japan

Japan's situation is very different, after the Meiji Restoration, the rapid capitalization of the first in the enterprise system arrangements, timely change in the early "government-run demonstration" approach, the implementation of the "thick colonial production", "The Meiji government not only vigorously encouraged and supported the development of enterprises, but also encouraged and supported the development of the private sector. The Meiji government not only encouraged and supported private enterprises, but also sold large-scale enterprises founded by the government in the early stage to entrepreneurs and businessmen in batches, and some were even transferred without compensation. Meiji government to "folk-oriented" enterprise system and various support policies greatly stimulate the development of private enterprises, and even part of the officials also embarked on the road of entrepreneurship in the sea. 1880s, Japan appeared industrial revolution boom, the cotton textile industry has become the center of the folk modern industry, to 1890 Japan's exports of cotton and textile products than imports, began to become the textile exports greater than imports, began to become a textile exporter, while China's textile production at that time accounted for only one-eightieth of imports. Private railroads, shipping, shipbuilding and other light and heavy industries have been more rapid development. 1891 Japan's private railroads amounted to 2,473 kilometers, for the government railroads 929 kilometers of two and a half times, while the same period in China only the government-run and the government governor of the business railroads 425 kilometers. By the end of 1893, Japan's private sector-based shipping industry has 130,000 tons of ships, while China has only one ship China Merchants, a shipping enterprise, there are 25,000 tons of ships, less than one-sixth of the tonnage of Japan's ships. This period of Japan's shipbuilding industry is also developing rapidly, when China often for whether to build their own ships and debate, Japan's private sector has begun to build warships for the government. 1892, Japan's various types of enterprises has reached 5,444, the number of workers reached 380,000 people. By 1894, the year of the Sino-Japanese War, Japan had initially achieved capitalist industrialization, and became the first country in Asia to achieve industrialization, laying the foundation for Japan to subsequently become a world economic power.

Eleven, the attitude and insight of the leading group profoundly affected the process of reform and the face of

China

China's modernization reform is highlighted through the foreign affairs movement, but the foreign affairs movement is not a complete sense of the state's behavior, but a portion of Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong, and other feudal officials and Yixin, Wenxiang, and other individual court officials initiated and chaired the . They all hold a lot of power, which is the reason why the foreign affairs movement can be carried out and sustained within a certain range and to a certain extent the conditions. But the foreign affairs faction was only a part and far from the whole of the personification of state power. After Yixin was deposed by the Empress Dowager Cixi, the lack of people in the center of the foreign affairs faction became more serious. Almost every reform and construction initiative of the foreign affairs movement was opposed and blocked by the hardliners. This not only caused heavy resistance to the foreign affairs cause, but also make the foreign affairs faction to carry a heavy ideological burden, can not help but look forward and backward, shrinking. This shows that the foreign affairs faction at that time was in a very difficult situation, the resistance to promote the cause of foreign affairs is very great. The reason why the recalcitrant faction had been playing an important role in the twenty or thirty years was related to the attitude of the supreme ruler. The Empress Dowager Cixi, who was the de facto ruler during this period, was keen on personal power and the preservation of her dominance. This is an important reason for the lack of an overall design for the foreign affairs endeavor and the inability to remove resistance, making it difficult to rise to a higher level and achieve greater success.

Japan

The leading group of the Meiji Restoration in Japan was under the banner of Emperor Meiji, with the reformers Okubo Toshimichi, Ito Hirobumi, and Yamagata Aratomo as the core, and the conservative forces that hindered the reform were excluded through the Southwest War. The Meiji Restoration was an act of national will and government, with a clear goal and general layout, which created a situation in which the government and the people were united in their efforts to ensure the smooth progress of the reform and modernization.

Besides the decadence of the supreme ruler and the constraints of the recalcitrant faction, the foreign affairs faction itself also had great limitations.

We can compare Li Hongzhang with Ito Hirobumi.

Li Hongzhang was the representative figure and important presiding officer of the foreign affairs movement, and Ito Hirobumi was the most important minister in the middle and late Meiji period, as he organized the cabinet four times and served as the president of the Privy Council four times after the death of Obojuriku Toshimichi. Li and Ito could be regarded as rivals in terms of historical status and political prestige. However, they had obvious differences, mainly in the following aspects.

First, they had a different understanding of the West and a different vision of the world.

Li Hongzhang and his colleagues compared to the course of a higher level, but his understanding of the world is still not intuitive enough and more superficial. During the entire foreign affairs movement, Li Hongzhang did not step out of the country. After the Sino-Japanese War, in addition to Japan to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Li Hongzhang's only trip abroad is 72 years old when he visited Europe, but that has been too late, and even welcome him to the German Minister of the Interior said flirtatiously: "but early to twenty-five years is not better."

Ito Hirobumi's understanding of the world is much more open and deep than Li Hongzhang's. He was fluent in both Chinese and English. He was fluent in Chinese and English, and constantly gained knowledge from Western learning. 1863, at the age of 22, Ito Hirobumi studied in England for a year, and saw with his own eyes the prosperity and progress of England, which made him feel the need to learn from the West and change the old system. Ito Hirobumi was 18 years younger than Li Hongzhang, but he first set foot on European soil 33 years earlier than Li Hongzhang. After leaving the United Kingdom to return to China in more than 40 years, he went to the West, a total of Europe and the United States to study and investigate the time ***5 years and a half, such a wealth of experience in the West, so that he has a broad and deep understanding of the world situation.

The second is that the intellectual structure and cultural concepts are different, and there is a difference in the consciousness of the times.

Li Hongzhang since childhood by the strict Confucianism, and to the imperial examination into the body, his knowledge structure is mainly traditional Chinese culture. Although he has always pursued the knowledge of the times and changes in the world of the wind, but also belongs to the scope of traditional culture. If he did not directly and extensively absorb Western learning, it would be difficult to form a new system of thought.

Ito Hirobumi and Li Hongzhang is different, he is "seeking knowledge in the world", to promote "civilization and enlightenment" of the vigorous advocates and practitioners. I study in Germany during the visit, worship the famous German jurist Nestor as a teacher, a few months to listen to 3 times a week, talk 3 times. In his letter to Iwakura, he said, "I have taken notes on the main points of the book, with the intention that it will be available for your perusal in the future." This shows his modest and dedicated attitude. At home, he never stopped learning about the world, and after becoming the Prime Minister, he often drove to the National Library to read books, most often biographies and world news magazines, and he also ordered his left and right to translate for other ministers to read. Ito Hirobumi to "prefer foreign style" and known, he presided over the construction of a special reception of foreign dignitaries and experts in the luxury club, called "Kagome Hall". Ito often participated in the activities of "Kagamikan", and even held a masquerade ball there, where he dressed up as a Venetian merchant, which was rumored to be a joke for a while. Ito Hirobumi did not believe in Christianity, but in order to show his enlightenment, he often went to church. He also consciously took the lead in eating beef, wearing western-style clothes and drinking coffee, and really went to great lengths and spared no effort to promote a change in the culture.

Thirdly, there are differences in their understanding of the direction of social development and their attitudes to reform.

Leung Chi-chiu in Li Hongzhang died soon wrote a book "Li Hongzhang" book on Li Yi comparison, that Li in political literacy is difficult to compare with Yi, Liang Qichao also on Li Hongzhang's understanding of the modern state to judge, said Li "do not know the principle of the nation, do not understand the world situation, do not know the origin of the political system". This criticism, although sharp, but really touched the crux of the problem, which is a certain capitalist consciousness of feudal bureaucrats Li Hongzhang and retained a certain degree of feudalism bourgeois revolutionaries Ito Hirobumi in the political literacy of the fundamental difference between the difference is highlighted in the attitude towards political reform. Li Hongzhang is a change of law theorists, he advocated the "internal need to change the law" is mainly manifested in the reform of the military system and the imperial examination, but these reforms due to the lack of support and their own limitations, did not make much progress. Li Hongzhang has always insisted on the "my China's political and cultural relics and customs, none better than other countries," the concept of the boundaries of his thinking and practice in political reform. Li Hongzhang saw the results of Japan's reforms, also repeatedly lamented "Japan to overseas area small countries, can still change in time, know their way, but my China deep but poor and through the reason, Fu carry on can be fearful of change of plan carry on", but also that "China's culture to keep the millennium, can not be suddenly change". But also think that "Chinese culture to keep a thousand years, can not suddenly change". It shows the lack of political vision.

Ito Hirobumi has a clearer understanding of the development trend of society, he pursued the direction of modern capitalism. He believed that the democratization of politics and the idea of constitutionalism was the trend of the times, so he constantly pushed the reform of his country to expand from the economic level to the political level. Japan's first constitution was drawn up under his auspices, and the first Diet was convened under his presidency.

This shows that the attitude of the supreme ruler towards reform, the composition of the leadership group, the ability and quality of the group, for the effectiveness of reform and modernization in modern China and Japan, plays a pivotal role. It can be seen that there is a strong unified state power, enlightened and innovative leadership group, a group of excellent and mature politicians, and a smooth order, the top and bottom of the synergistic officer environment, is an important guarantee of the success of the reform.