The field of classical representation

Viennese Classical Music

Classical music mainly refers to the mainstream music of Europe in the period of 1730-1820, also known as the Viennese Classical School.

The Viennese Classical School refers to a school of music formed in Vienna in the second half of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, also known as the "Viennese Classical School". It is represented by Haydn (1732-1809), Mozart (1756-1791) and Beethoven (1770-1827). It is characterized by a high degree of unity of reason and emotion, and a high degree of unity of profound ideological content and perfect artistic form. In terms of compositional techniques, they inherited the achievements of traditional European polyphonic and dominant music, and established the structure of modern sonata forms as well as the genres and forms of symphonies, concertos, and all kinds of chamber music, which had a profound influence on the development of Western music.

Musical change

The main reason why the change in the language of music took place was the emergence of a new trend of thought, the Enlightenment. This major change in the early eighteenth century had occurred in philosophy and the awakening of scientific discoveries like those of Newton in England and Descartes in France, where rational and humane views were valued and mystery and superstition faded. One of the goals of the Enlightenment was to popularize literature and the arts among ordinary men and women, so that the middle classes could share in what used to be available only to the aristocracy, and that the arts should enrich and diversify people's lives. Thus we find that at the beginning of the eighteenth century the form of opera was not only performed exclusively in private houses and in the Italian language only, but was also open to the public and in the national languages of the various countries. In France, the opera comique appeared, in which songs were interspersed with dialogues, and the storyline was based on the daily life of the common people. In the 1820s, opera comique was already being performed in the marketplaces of Paris. Compared with the court opera, its content is more suitable for the taste of the people. In England, the eighteenth century, beginning in the thirties, the aristocrats are still enjoying the Italian opera, but the middle class like to have dialogue, the tune of the simple and beautiful light opera, such a situation not only in London, but also throughout the country. This type of opera was translated into German and performed in Berlin and Hamburg in Germany in the middle of the 18th century, which contributed to the creation of Germany's own national form of this type of opera, i.e., the Singspiel (Singspiel). In Italy, the home of opera, there were already comedies in local languages at the beginning of the 18th century, such as in Venice, Naples and other places. This kind of opera is close to the subject matter of people's daily lives, melodious tunes; in contrast, the stories and characters taken from ancient times or myths are not easy to understand, and its music is also more boring.

Instrumentalization

Opera is not the only genre that shows the progression of cultural and artistic development. At the same time, the printing and publishing of music was established, the masses could buy sheet music to sing or play at home, and the manufacture of musical instruments flourished as a result of new technology. Young girls could play the harpsichord or the piano as an important sign of education. Men played the flute, violin or other amateur instruments. In the eighteenth century, many textbooks were produced for home use. Composers also wrote music for home use, which was technically simpler and easier to master, but still beautiful and enjoyable to play. This is what caused the stylistic shift mentioned above, to a more regular and melodic style. People tried to sing at home the songs they had heard in the places of public entertainment, and the publication of "popular songs", songs from staged operas (and in London, also in famous amusement parks), which were new to music lovers, was born.

Popularity of concerts

Concert activity had already begun in the eighteenth century. Whereas instrumental music had previously been performed mainly at court or in the homes of high society figures, a completely new situation arose in which people (usually both music lovers and professional musicians) gathered to give concerts for their own amusement (and, in some cases, for their own livelihood) and for the hospitality of the listeners who came to them. There were many music professionals in the larger cities, and London and Paris were the first to organize regular orchestra concerts, with other cities soon following suit. Ticketed concerts were also held by court bands. Especially in the late eighteenth century, concert activity grew rapidly. Distinguished performers toured from city to city. Famous local artists also gave annual 'charity' concerts (the performers were still paid). The orchestra as a group was taking shape, and the opening of concerts to the public was a novelty at the time.

The birth of a new generation of composers

To meet this need, compositional techniques had to be renewed, and music was required to have a more logical and clearer form in order to attract the listener's attention and interest. The three most famous composers of this school were Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. This is known as the Viennese Classical School.

Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven were all active in Vienna from the 1880s to the 1820s, and they influenced each other. All were masters of the sonata form, writing monumental works in the genres of sonata, symphony, and quartet; all were also committed to thematic development and the use of tonal configurations to infuse abstract forms with nuanced expression.

While all three wrote operas, only Mozart has left a lasting legacy in opera, and there is really no "classical" style of opera. It was mainly the instrumental music of these great composers that had a great impact on the period and the nineteenth century as a whole. With the exception of Beethoven's later works, which are more difficult, the works of these three men are both profound and accessible, and this has contributed to the globalization of the music that began in this period. While the works of Bach and Handel remained confined to central Germany and England, Haydn's works were heard not only in the aristocratic houses where he was employed, but also in Vienna, Paris, and London; Mozart roamed all over Europe as a virtuoso playing his own compositions; and Beethoven's compositions were heard all over Europe from 1805 onward.

Classical music succeeded Baroque music, a style or era of music in European music history. This era saw the emergence of the genre of the multi-movement symphony, solo concerto, string quartet, multi-movement sonata and so on. The sonata style and the whorl style became the most common styles in the Classical and Romantic periods, and their influence was far-reaching until the 20th century. The size of the orchestra grew larger than in the Baroque period, and it became the norm for the orchestra to be led by a conductor. The piano's predecessor, the fortepiano, appeared in the Classical period and gradually replaced the harpsichord.

Major Representatives

René Descartes' (1596-1650) rationalism was the philosophical foundation of Classicism. His Methodology of the Proper Use of Reason and the Pursuit of Truth in Science, known simply as Methodology (1637) in the history of philosophy, was the first major French philosophical and scientific work, and an important work in the history of European philosophy. Descartes proposed the use of "pure natural reason". He divided human thinking into four stages: revealing the truth through intuition and reasoning; using analysis to find universal truths through complex things; reconstructing complex things from isolated elements; and using verification to make up for what may have been forgotten. This is how he specified it: "The first principle is to accept as true absolutely only those things which I evidently believe to be so and so; that is to say, to be careful to avoid haste and established ideas, and to comprehend no more, no less, and only such judgments as are as follows: those things which are so plainly and so clearly presented to my mind that I have no time to doubt them. The second principle is to distinguish the difficulties one from another, and to examine each part as minutely as possible, in order that it may be best solved. The third principle is to begin with the simplest and easiest things to recognize, and to lead my mind in a well-organized way, gradually and progressively up to the most complex perceptions, even to the extent of conceiving the order of those things which are not originally in order with each other. The last principle is to make a complete calculation and a general access in all respects, so that I am confident that nothing is left out." Descartes, who famously said, "I think, therefore I am," believed that sensation was unreliable, and that reason was an innate faculty of cognition, the root of all knowledge, by which man recognizes the truth of all things and determines right from wrong. He also believes that the beauty of all things lies in truth, which exists in organization, order, unity, uniformity, balance, symmetry, clarity, and simplicity, and that man can recognize this truth only by reason. In addition, his Theory of the Emotions of the Mind (1649) asserts that the will can directly change human emotions. Descartes' theories directly guided classical writers.

The ideological characteristics of Classical literature were: First. By the direct intervention of the king's power, the political ideology advocates the unity of the country, opposes feudalism, glorifies the wise king, and combines literature and realpolitik very closely. Most of the classical works depict the conflict between the feelings of the protagonist and the responsibility of the family or the obligation of the state, showing the theme of subordination of feelings to responsibility and subordination of the individual to obligation. Many works directly glorify the king's sagacity, or have the king act as the adjudicator and mediator of conflicts. The illegal activities that are not conducive to social stability are sharply attacked, showing a strong political tendency to support the central king's power.　　Second. Promote rationality and demand restraint of personal passions. Boileau pointed out, "First of all, you must love reason: may your writings always gain value and light only by reason." Reason is to be used to deal with personal conflicts with the interests of the state, family obligations, and notions of honor, so that love or lust can only come second. Some writers regard stinginess, hypocrisy, lechery, etc., as lustful transgressions incompatible with reason, and seek to satirize them.　　Third. Sharp attack on the aristocracy's extravagance, lechery, corruption and degeneration, but also criticize the bourgeoisie's stupidity, attachments and want to become the mentality of the aristocracy. Classical writers dared to expose the vices and ills of society, and dealt an unrelenting blow to the outlaws and groups that carried out sinful activities in the garb of religion. Comedy, in particular, advocated the removal of customs in laughter.　　Fourth. Classical tragedy is mostly based on the theme of emperors and generals and the secret affairs of the palace, inheriting the tradition of ancient Greek tragedy. It is a refraction of the life of the court and the upper class of the aristocracy. Among them, Gonayi's tragedy excludes the soul of ancient tragedy - the idea of fate. His heroes are the makers of their own destiny and no longer succumb to superhuman forces. Such a character, although involuntarily thrown into unexpected events, is able to draw from himself the necessary strength to overcome great difficulties. Classical comedy, allegory, and prose, on the other hand, touch the third rank with a broader literary vision and a more democratic spirit. Compared with tragedy, comedy, fable and prose reflect a much broader aspect of life and are more active in their thinking. Comedy depicts to the bourgeoisie, commoners, scholars, doctors, playwrights, servants, cooks, and so on; fables touch as many characters besides writing about people with animals.

Jean Racine

The second representative of classical tragedy was Jean Racine (1639-1699). His Andromache (1667), with its heroine's efforts to preserve her son's life, shows characters who put the interests and obligations of their country at risk to satisfy their lusts, and condemns the lustful excesses of the aristocracy. Andromache, the wife of the Trojan hero Hector, becomes the slave girl of Peleus, the Greek king of Epirus, after the city-state is sacked. Peleus fell in love with her, threatened her with the execution of her son to force her into submission, and actually delayed his marriage to a Spartan princess. The princess instructs her suitor, a Greek envoy, to kill Peleus and then commits suicide out of regret. In the play, the king disregards the interests of the nation in order to satisfy his lust, the princess exceeds the bounds of revenge in order to vent her hatred, and the Greek envoy disobeys his mission and even becomes a regicide in order to fulfill his lover's wish. Only Andromache, bent on preserving the root of vengeance, is resourceful, courageous and highly rational. The heroine of Fidel (1677) is a queen who falls in love with the son of the king's ex-wife. When she discovers that the prince is in love with someone else, she harms him and kills herself out of remorse. She is also a character of indiscriminate lust and lack of reason. Racine's later works include Estelle (1689) and Athalie (1691). Racine is good at portraying the psychological and ideological development of women: Andromache first wants to be clean and self-loving, but then, feeling that she can't have the best of both worlds, she tries to sacrifice herself to save her son and pretends to promise to marry the king; Fidelity keeps her own feelings secret at the beginning, but once the time is ripe, she blurts them out and then, after she is rejected, she feels ashamed, and then, when the king returns, she is too eager to pass the responsibility on to someone else, and then finally, the prince is killed and knows that she is responsible for it. When the king returns, he is eager to shift the responsibility to others, and finally the prince is killed and knows that he is responsible for it. The psychological development of the characters is written in a meticulous way. Racine utilized the "Three Uniforms" to the point of perfection, and developed the art of classical tragedy to the peak. His plays are free of unnecessary scenes and interludes, and more importantly, the conflict has already developed to the point where it becomes explosive at the beginning of the play. Andromache opens at a moment of acute conflict and omits the development of the conflict. Fidel opens at the moment when the heroine reveals her true feelings, and it is not necessary to repeat the previous story. In this way, the total conflict erupts all at once and becomes a tragedy in a single day. In addition, Racine followed the ancient Greek tragedy of the concept of fate, that fate like the devil dominates the actions of the characters, and the beauty of tragedy arises from this, so his plays always depict the inevitable process leading to tragedy, unlike Gonaye's plays, which need to create some obstacles for the characters, so Racine's plays are more tragic.

Jean de La Fontaine

Jean de La Fontaine's (1621-1695) Allegories (1668-1694) sought to reflect French society in the second half of the 17th century, which was "a gigantic comedy, with hundreds of acts, in which the universe is the stage. The universe is its stage, in which men, gods, beasts, and everything else plays some part." La Fontaine dared to expose the darkness and corruption of the feudal dynasty. The tyranny and hypocrisy of the Lion King, the flattering and flattering of the ministers, the corruption and rapacity of the officials, and the innocence and slaughter of the common people were all vividly reproduced. Structurally, La Fontaine strives to write the fable as a compressed play, with an opening, a development, and an ending. The dialogues are written in a lively and natural way, showing the personalities of the characters. The rhymes are varied and the verses are free and catchy. He raised allegorical writing to unprecedented heights. Nicolas Boileau Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711) was a theorist of classicism. The Art of Poetry (1674) set forth the aesthetic principles of classicism and became its code of art. He stipulated that rationality was the basic principle of literary creation, that nature must be imitated, and that nature meant court and city life; that the creative experience of ancient Greek and Roman writers was the supreme criterion, and that the "Three Laws" must be observed; and that there was a distinction between high and low literary genres. From the development of the process was first the Renaissance, to the Baroque style, then to the Rococo style, and finally realism.

Neoclassicism

Classicalism, under the banner of the revival of ancient Greco-Roman art, appeared as early as the 17th century in France. Before the French Revolution and its political and social reforms, there was a pure artistic revolution, which was the neo-classical art movement. 18th-century French art was neither a reproduction of ancient Greek and Roman art, nor a repetition of 17th-century French classicism. It was a trend of borrowing from the past and opening up to the present to meet the needs of the bourgeois revolution. The so-called neo-classicism was relative to the classicism of the 17th century. At the same time, because this neo-classical art movement was closely related to the French Revolution, it was also called revolutionary classicism.

Classicism

It was a cultural trend and a tendency in art that was popular in European countries from the 17th century to the 19th century. It originated in France in the 17th century and had three different artistic tendencies. One is mainly on the ancient Greek and Roman classical works of art style of nostalgia and imitation of the wind, to Poussin on behalf of the reverence for eternity and natural rationality of classicism. In a narrower sense, there is the reenactment of this nostalgic style that emerged during the French Revolution from the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century as the second tendency, represented by Davitt's classicism that preached the spirit of revolution and struggle. Third, the pursuit of perfect form and exemplary style of the Academy of classicism represented by Angell.

Classicism as an artistic trend, its aesthetic principle is to use ancient artistic ideals and norms to express the reality of moral concepts, and typical historical events to express contemporary ideological themes, that is, borrowing from the past as a metaphor for the present. Classical painting takes this spirit as its connotation, advocates elegant and sublime subjects, solemn and simple forms, emphasizes rationality and belittles emotion, stresses the sketch and rigorous appearance, depreciates the expression of color and brushstroke, pursues the balance and integrity of the composition, and strives to make the works produce a kind of ancient quiet and grim beauty. In terms of technique, classical painting emphasizes precise sketching techniques and soft shades, and focuses on sculptural simplicity and generalization of image modeling, pursuing a grand compositional approach and solemn style and verve. Representatives

Wojira adopted the language of the court and the aristocracy, rejected the colloquial language of the common people, and formulated the norms of formal French. The literary language of classicism is this formal French, not the language of the common people. 1634, the poet Mellet in his tragedy for the first time to implement the strict "three uniforms", requiring the plot to be limited to the same event, occurring on the same day (within 24 hours) and the same place. Classical tragedy writers basically follow the "three rules".

The first phase of classicism was represented by writers such as Gonaye and Pascal. From 1660 to 1688 was the most prosperous period of classical literature, the representative writers are Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, Bossuet and Boileau. From 1688 to 1715, it was the period when classical literature flourished and declined, and the representative writers were Labruyère, St. Simon, and Fénelon, among others.

Representative Writings

Bouillot's The Art of Poetry is an important work in the theory of Classical literature. Although the theories in The Art of Poetry have been proposed by previous authors, the author did not present a systematic theory of classicism, but many of the principle opinions of classicism get concentrated in The Art of Poetry. The theory of classicism in the history of French literature is summarized and generalized by later critics after analyzing the works of various representative writers of classicism.

In French classical literature, the most successful in theater, the emergence of three major dramatists: tragedy writers have Gonaye (1606--1684) and Racine (1639--1699), comedy writers are Molière (1622--1673), Molière's representative works are "The Hypocrites," "Fluffy," and so on, he is the most accomplished seventeenth-century comedian, but not the most typical of classicism, but it is not the most typical of classicism. but not the most typical classicist.

Gonneau's masterpiece is "Cid", this tragedy in the history of French theater laid the foundation of the norms of classical tragedy. The central content is about the conflict between personal feelings and reason, reason overcomes feelings, the duty to defend the country and the conflict of family feudal obligations, and finally the feudal family obligations, subordinate to the higher duty to defend the motherland, and thus the protagonist Roderick led the troops to defend the enemy, and was awarded the title of Cid (i.e., the general's meaning, the meaning of the first-class chief). Gonayi*** wrote more than thirty plays, mostly tragedies, but also a few comedies.

Racine's masterpiece is "Ondromag", taken from the two tragedies of the ancient Greek tragedian Euripides, "Andromache" and "Trojan Women", which embodies the principle of taking the ancient Greco-Roman literature as a model, and expresses itself in accordance with the Trinity, focusing on conciseness and conciseness, and the world calls it the most standardized tragedy of classicism. Racine*** wrote eleven tragedies and one comedy, specializing in the portrayal of the psychological activities of the characters and displaying extraordinary artistic talent. The representative of the classical aspect of literary theory was Bouillot (1636--1711), author of the book The Art of Poetry, which was called by Pushkin the Koran of classicism. This theoretical work on literature and art inherited and synthesized the ideas of Aristotle's Poetics from ancient Greece, complete with classical theories that met the requirements of the time, the original text being expressed in poetic form. In addition, the allegorical poet La Fontaine (1621--1695), author of "Allegorical Poems" in twelve volumes, was also influential. Characteristics

1. The basic spirit of the poem is that "reason" is the most important thing, emphasizing on normal reasoning and requiring writers to understand the world in a normal way and express it in a clear way.

2 . There should be an unchanging principle in mind, because behind all the fickle phenomena, there exists an unchanging principle, an absolute concept of "beauty". The mission of the writer is to express this absolute concept as much as possible. Classicalism does not emphasize the expression of individual thoughts and emotions, but rather the writing of general types.

3. Classicism called for the "imitation of nature". Nature here does not mean the objective world, but the subjectively chosen phenomena; the object of classical description is mainly human nature. This is what they called "nature". As for the material world, classical writers were almost blind to it.

4. Classicalism requires "realism", but does not require the writing of real things, because real things are sometimes not pleasing to the eye; at the same time, classicalism requires "decency", which means that the things depicted in the work must make everyone look good to the eye without being offensive.

5. Classicalism believed that the task of literature was to teach morality and to persuade people to do good. 6. The great writers of ancient Greece and Rome were revered and their works were held in high esteem.

6. There are strict boundaries and rules for various genres of literature, such as tragedy and comedy are not to be mixed (opposed to the writing of tragedy and comedy), and tragedy must abide by the "Three Uniforms", etc.

7.

7. Classicism requires a simple, concise, clear and precise style of writing, and is opposed to tediousness, prolixity, vagueness and obscurity. 17th-century French classical literature had a close relationship with the monarchical and centralized politics at that time; it was protected, encouraged and cultivated by this regime, and it served this regime. Louis XIV used a generous annual salary for the famous writers of the time, treating them like the noble family, and treating them with respect and courtesy.

Relationship with Louis XIV

The prosperity of classicism was also closely related to the tastes and policies of Louis XIV. He loved the festivities and pageantry of the court and encouraged the theater. Although he favored the sublime and the magnificent, he equally admired the comic satire of Molière, who, thanks to his protection, maintained his own creative direction and triumphed in the staging of The Hypocrites. He brought Racine, Boileau, and others to fame in the literary world. He was unwilling to impose a line on literature in spite of his words. He knew that genius and conformity were not reconcilable, and even allowed the writer a certain independence in attacking society. He did not like La Fontaine, but his vengeance was confined to delaying the admission of the allegorist to the House of Bachelor. This monarch, keen on glory, understood that later generations would appreciate him as a wise protector of literary art.

The prose writing of French classicism was also more characteristic. Blaise Pascal's (1623-1662) Epistle to the Provincials (1656-1657) defended the suppressed Jeansenists. The Book of Thoughts (published in 1670) sets forth views on life and the universe. Madame Lafayette's (1634-1693) Princesse de Clive (1678) is seen as the first of Europe's more accomplished psychological novels. Jean de La Bruyere's (1645-1696) Discourse on Character (1688-1694) depicts the social customs of the second half of the seventeenth century in character sketches, aphorisms, fables, and so on, and is especially remarkable for its portraits of the court nobility and the riff-raff. The Adventures of Telemachus (1699) by Fran?ois de Fénelon (1651-1715) is largely taken from the fourth chapter of the Odyssey, from which the author's political views and ideas of governance are expressed.

English classical literature also achieved some success. But it imitated the French classicism with obvious traces and not enough originality. John Drayton (1631-1700) was an advocate and practitioner of classicism. On Dramatic Body Poetry (1668) and other expositions of the laws of classicism. The satire on the Whig conspiracy to install Charles II's illegitimate son as heir to the throne, "Absalom and Achitophel" (1681), was witty and lively. He wrote a number of "heroic dramas," depicting the love affairs of noblewomen and knights, celebrating outdated ideals, and glorifying court life. Wycherley (1642-1716) wrote a number of comedies characterized by classicism. Alexander Pope (1688-1744) culminated English classicism with his compositions. A Short Essay on Criticism (1711) publicized Boileau's theories and introduced the idea of "beautiful interest". The Raiders of the Hair (1712, 1714) depicted the quarrel between two Catholic families and satirized the emptiness and boredom of the upper class. The Letter to Dr. Arbuthnott (1735) criticizes those in high positions who do whatever they want to do, and who are morally corrupt but get away with it. His works are rich in imagery and language, and some of his famous lines, such as "Mistakes happen to everyone, but forgiveness is the most valuable", have become English proverbs.

In addition, the German Johann Christoph Gottescheit's (1700-1766) Trial of Critical Poetry (1730), which advocated rationality and the "Three Uniforms," was instrumental in standardizing the German national language and reorganizing the theater. His theories contributed to the spirit of the Enlightenment. It was only in the 18th century that Russia embraced the classical conception of literature, mainly on the basis of the idea of "glorifying the wise monarchs", which served Peter I's reforms. Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov's (1717-1777) tragedies, such as Horev (1747) and Sinav and Truvor (1750), which preached the idea of the subordination of feelings to reason and of rights to duties, as well as the strict observance of the "trinity", contributed to the birth of the Russian theater. The birth of the Russian theater. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) played a prominent role in the construction of the language, and his Grammar of Russian (1755, 1757) and On the Benefits of Religious Books in Russian (1757), based on the principles of classicism, categorized literary genres into high, medium, and low, and defined the permissible vocabulary of each genre. vocabulary permitted in each genre, laying the foundation for the standardization of the language. The Ode on the Accession of Queen Elizabeth (1748), full of high patriotic passions and celebrating heroic deeds, provided an example of his claims to poetic meter. Classical architecture in the broad sense refers to the development of ancient Greek and Roman architecture on the basis of the Italian Renaissance architecture, Baroque architecture and Classical Revival architecture, which *** with the same characteristics is the use of classical columns. Classical architecture in the narrow sense refers to the use of "pure" ancient Greek and Roman architecture and Italian Renaissance architectural style and classical columns, mainly French classical architecture, as well as other regions affected by its architecture. Classical architecture is usually referred to in a narrow sense.