Text of China's Logical History

In ancient China, except for a few logic monographs, many logic theories and ideas were scattered in a large number of political, philosophical, ethical and natural science works, which also contained rich logic application materials. As a special discipline, the history of China's logic takes the emergence and development of logic theory and thought as its main task, and summarizes and analyzes the achievements and contributions of various schools in logic theory as its main content.

The development process and main stages The development process of China's logic thought can be divided into three historical development periods: pre-Qin, Han Dynasty to Ming and Qing Dynasties and modern times, according to the characteristics of the formation and development of China's ancient logic and the introduction and influence of foreign logic thoughts. The first two periods belong to the formation and development stages of China's ancient logic, with the emphasis on the establishment and evolution of argumentation logic; The later period is the development stage of China's modern logic thought, with the spread of western logic in China as the mainstream.

The pre-Qin period was the period when China's ancient logic began to form and prosper. During the transition from slavery to feudalism in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the wind of debate was extremely strong and a hundred schools of thought contended. All factions have discussed or summarized the relationship between name and reality, rectification of name and righteousness, and some thinkers have emerged who have begun to study the concepts of nouns and righteousness. Through the summary of famous scholars, especially Confucianism, Legalism and Mohism, a relatively complete logical system was established in ancient China.

At the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, Deng first put forward the ideas of "accusation debate" and "ambiguity theory" in the debate. Confucius put forward the requirement of "correcting the name" from the aspects of politics and ethics, which contained some reasonable logical thoughts, and put forward analogy methods such as "being close to the water and getting the moon first" and "drawing inferences from one instance to another". Mozi first put forward the concept of "debate" in the history of ancient logic in China, thinking that "debate" has the function of reasoning and understanding, that is, distinguishing right from wrong, distinguishing differences, knowing the past and not forgetting the future. He first put forward the concepts of "name", "class" and "reason" from a logical point of view, emphasized the cognitive functions of "class" and "reason", and summarized the reasoning and argumentation. The famous Hui Shi and GongSunLong were the most influential debaters at that time. Hui Shi put forward "Ten Events in Calendar", mainly discussing the relationship between name and reality. In "Good Analogy", he expounded the analogy principle and method of "what you know" to be similar and infer what you don't know. From the height of theoretical thinking, Gong Sunlong put forward the logical principle of "only dependence", holding that the name of "there" must refer to the reality of the other; The name "this" must refer specifically to this fact. Through the concrete analysis of the proposition that "white horse is not a horse", he demonstrated the difference between species name ("white horse") and genus name ("horse") in concept connotation and extension. Gong Sunlong's analysis of "name" led the thought of name debate in pre-Qin dynasty to the direction of pure logic discussion, and made important contributions to the establishment and development of ancient logic science in China.

The late Mohist school was a group of famous thinkers in the middle and late Warring States period. They inherited and developed the logic thoughts of famous scholars, Confucianism, especially Mozi, and systematically expounded the "Mohist logic" in Mohist debates, thus making China's ancient logic reach a relatively complete level in theory and system. It is the representative work of China's few logical monographs in ancient times.

Mobian first gave a clear definition of "debate" from a logical point of view. It is pointed out that "debate" is a dispute between right and wrong about the same theme or topic, which is manifested as a dispute between a pair of contradictory propositions about the same theme. Mo Bian emphasizes that there should not be two objects of argument, but an improper person and a doer must be used as arguments in a pair of contradictory propositions, which reveals that argument has the nature of distinguishing victory from defeat and profoundly reflects the laws of identity and contradiction and law of excluded middle's basic thought. Xiao Qu also summarized the purpose and function of "debate" as six aspects: clarifying right and wrong, judging chaos, clarifying similarities and differences, examining names, examining facts, handling interests and determining suspects, and put forward that the objective basis and standard of "debate" is "describing the essence of everything and discussing the proportion of different opinions".

The most valuable in Mo Bian is the logical theory and system of thinking forms such as "name", "word" and "saying". "Name" has the function of quoting facts, and "quoting" means "saying the name of one text and quoting the facts of another". Therefore, "name" has the conceptual nature of reflecting the attribute or essence of things. In Mo Bian, the classification principle that the differences of classes must be based on the bias and omission of the same essential attribute is put forward, and names are divided into reaching names equivalent to categories, class names equivalent to universal concepts and private names equivalent to proper names according to their extension. Mohist argues that the function of words (topics) is to express meaning, so words and words are not only statements or propositions, but also propositions and judgments of ideas (ideas) produced by rational thinking (mind). In Mo Bian, some words with different natures and types were also put forward, such as "Jin", that is, "de", which is equivalent to the full name; "False", that is, "today is not what it used to be", has the nature of function words; "or", that is, "inexhaustible", is a special name that is not full name, that is, an alternative statement of either/or; "Must" is the inevitable meaning, and so on. Thus, the contradictory relationship between single affirmation and single negation, single negation and total affirmation of words is revealed. He also correctly expounded GAI's theory of Ci (see Ci and its Concept), that is, the "horse" riding "does not need Gai; The "horse" who doesn't ride a horse must be GAI. Mo Bian pointed out that the function of "saying" is "reasoning" and "explaining the truth", that is, reasoning. "So" is the premise or condition that "word" can be established. "Speaking knowledge" is deductive reasoning knowledge based on "knowing" and "hearing". If you personally know that "the outdoor wall is white" and hear that "the indoor wall and the outdoor wall are the same color", you can infer that "the indoor wall is also white". Daqu further puts forward that "Li Ci" must have three preconditions: Li, Li and category, which are similar to direct causes, general laws and examples of similar things. Thus, the basic process and form of "argument" in Mohist logic-the theory of three things is more completely revealed. It requires that the inductive factors listed should be included in the argument that basically belongs to deduction. Mo Bian also preliminarily summed up specific deductive formulas such as OR, FALSE, EFFECT, STOP, NEW, SUPPORT and PURPOSE. The five theories of OR, FALSE, EFFECT, YOU and STOP are equivalent to selective reasoning, hypothetical reasoning, outspoken reasoning, complex conceptual reasoning and direct reasoning among contradictory propositions in formal logic deductive reasoning. "Pioneering", "helping" and "pushing" are equivalent to three direct analogies. These forms of reasoning enrich and improve the deductive theory and system of Mohist debate, and reflect Mohist's reasonable understanding of basic indirect reasoning forms and some direct reasoning forms such as hypothesis, choice and blunt words. Mohist also further revealed the principle of identity by expounding the theory of "one thing stops here, that's all" The principle of the law of contradiction is further embodied in revealing sophistry propositions containing logical contradictions, such as "taking words as contradictions" The special chapter of Xiaoqupian discusses the logical requirements and general principles of preventing logical errors in the four theories of creation, tutoring and deduction, and points out that "multi-party", "specialized category" and "specialized principle", that is, words are ambiguous and categories are different in size, so there are sufficient and necessary differences, which is an important reason for logical errors. In the aspect of induction, Mo Bian also put forward the idea of simple enumeration.

In the pre-Qin period, another famous thinker who made outstanding contributions to China's ancient logic was Xunzi, who inherited and developed the famous Mohist school's theory of name rectification, making the Confucian thought of name rectification more theoretical and systematic in logic. He emphasized that naming originated from the senses, and thought that "name" had the conceptual nature of summarizing a class of things and the lexical nature of "enough to refer to reality". His outstanding originality in theory lies in putting forward the principle of "establishing a name fulcrum" Conceptually, he put forward the principle of "the same is the same, and the difference is different", emphasizing the principle of limiting and expanding the concepts of "repeatedly citing as * * *, partially citing as different", "pushing as * * *" and "pushing as different". He divided names into * * * names and aliases. A name (such as "animal") is called "* * * name" when it is relative to a smaller class name (such as "cow") and "alias" when it is relative to a larger class name (such as "creature"). Therefore, there are * * * names above the * * name, until it can no longer be * * *, it is called "big * * * name" (such as "thing"); There are aliases under aliases, called "big aliases" until they are inseparable (some people think it is equivalent to the smallest * * * name; Some people think it is equivalent to a single name). He also put forward the principles of conciseness, understandability and respect for social customs. In addition, Xunzi also put forward the logical theory of words, sayings and arguments, pointing out that words use different real names to express a judgment, and "arguing" and "saying" are ways to distinguish right from wrong with the same real name, which are equivalent to judgment, argumentation and reasoning. He also put forward the theory of "three puzzles" to expose and prevent logical errors. Although the examples cited have misunderstandings and prejudices against the famous Mohist school, they still have theoretical value.

After Xunzi, Han Fei took the lead in putting forward the concept of "contradiction theory", brilliantly revealing the ideological principle of the law of contradiction, and pointed out in the opposing proposition of "invincible shield" and "invincible spear" that it cannot be true at the same time (see contradiction theory). In addition, Han Fei also put forward some viewpoints, such as "judging names and positioning", "distinguishing points and classifying categories" and "being true with names", which further developed the positive significance of correcting names. Lu Chengshu's Spring and Autumn Annals, written in the 3rd century BC, also expounded the principles of correcting names and ascertaining facts, revealed the relationship between words and ideological judgments, and put forward the principle of "analogy". However, since Xunzi, the logic of name debate in the pre-Qin period has not been fully inherited and developed because of overemphasis on the political purpose of "correcting names" and exclusion of the thoughts of famous Mohists. (See pre-Qin logical thought)

From the Han Dynasty to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, from the pre-Qin period to modern times, the development of China's ancient logic was hindered by the ruling class's rejection of Confucianism and the rejection of famous ink. For more than two thousand years, only a few intellectuals have generally discussed the significance and form of reasoning and the relationship between name and reality.

In the struggle with religious theology, Wang Chong, an outstanding materialist thinker in Han Dynasty, consciously used the method of reasoning and argumentation to explore the function, requirements and methods of argumentation and put forward some rules of argumentation. He named his book Lun Heng, which means a book about speech standards. He emphasized that the purpose of distinguishing truth from falsehood, proving right from wrong and refuting fallacy should be achieved through argumentation. So his argument includes proof and refutation, and pays more attention to refutation. He also stressed that "nothing is clear and effective, and there is no proof in theory", and the argument must be proved to be true and sufficient. The efficacy or verification he asked for not only includes the factual proof based on the enumerated facts, but also attaches great importance to the logical proof of reasoning methods such as analogy and deduction.

In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the debate once prevailed, and the logic thought of Ming and Mo, which had been banned for more than 500 years, was rediscovered. Liezi, compiled by Wei Jin people, lists many propositions put forward by debaters such as Hui Shi and Gongsun Long in the pre-Qin period, as well as some information about the debate on names. For the first time, Lu Sheng compiled four Mohist works, namely, Classic I, Classic II, Classic I and Classic II, into a book "Mo Bian", which was annotated and narrated. However, the original work has been lost, and the only remaining Annotation on Mo Debate is China's first monograph on the history of logic. This paper makes a new summary of the history and significance of Ming Debate Thought in the pre-Qin period, reaffirms the value of Ming Debate Thought and Mo Debate Thought, and points out: "Susan Mozi, ... Xun Qing, Zhuang Zhou, etc. It can't be discussed easily unless they destroy celebrities. "

At that time, an important debate on the issue of name and reality was launched between Wang Bi's theory of "not saying everything" and Ouyang Jian's theory of "not saying everything". On the one hand, Wang Bi admitted that "words" can express "meaning", on the other hand, he came to the conclusion that "words" are inexhaustible and "meaning" lies in forgetting words. Ouyang Jian fully affirmed the cognitive function of names in distinguishing things, speaking logically and doing one's best. This debate not only raises the philosophical question of whether "speech" can fully express its meaning, but also raises the question of whether "speech" can fully express its meaning from the perspective of semantics. But at that time, the latter question was not completely answered from a logical point of view.

From the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, with the gradual rise of the wind of argument, a literary argument method began to prevail. Historically, it was called "Julian History", "Julian" and "Julian Style". This "Julian style" is only a relatively fixed format style, and it is not generalized from the form or theory of reasoning.

Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, Buddhism and Yin Ming have been introduced into China (see The Spread and Development of Yin Ming Religion in China). In the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang brought back and translated two important works of India's New Inming, On the Meaning of Inming and On the Meaning of Inming. According to his explanation, his disciples commented on the Ming Dynasty, the most influential of which was Kui Ji's theory of "taking the right from the clear" (referred to as "The Great Book"). There are still some existing literary works, namely "A Brief Comment on Ming Yi" (hereinafter referred to as "Yan Zheng Lue") and "A Brief Comment on Ming Yi" by Shen Tai. Xuanzang, Kui Ji and others not only made historic contributions to the introduction and translation of Yin Ming, but also developed Yin Ming Theory through translation and annotation. This is mainly manifested in the following aspects: ① the translation of the theory of "three phases of karma", especially the article "the same product has its own nature", is more accurate and rigorous than the original; (2) Divide the tangible and intangible in religion, karma and metaphor into three categories, and divide "cause" and "cause" into six causes according to words, wisdom and meaning; (3) Put forward the rule that "sending short messages" is not a fault; (4) Many fallacies are divided into full marks and one point according to self-comparison, other comparisons and * * * comparison, and so on. After Yin Ming was introduced, there was a climax of studying Yin Ming in the early Tang Dynasty, which was in a leading position in the world, so China was called the second hometown of Yin Ming. But this climax lasted only a few decades, and then it declined.

At the same time, it was introduced into Han areas in Ming Dynasty, and also began to be introduced into China, Tibet and other Tibetan areas. Around the 8th century AD, many works by Indian relatives Dignā ga and Fazhi were translated into Tibetan. By the 1 1 century, Master Zi (also translated as Chabakusen,1109 ~165438) and his disciples had made comments on the book "On Quantity and Choice" respectively, which created a special style in the Ming Dynasty. The ode and self-interpretation of the Theory of Correcting Tibet (also translated as the Theory of Measuring Tibet) written by Saban Qingxi Village (also known as Saban Gonggajiang Village,11) laid the theoretical foundation of Tibetan Buddhism and had a great influence in Tibet. Later, Zong Kaba's "Introduction to Seven Quantities" (also translated as "Introduction to Seven Theories of Ming Dynasty") and a batch of notes and teaching materials of Ming Dynasty came into being. The spread of the Ming Dynasty in Tibet was divided into two periods, the old and the new, with Zong Kaba as the boundary. There are more than 50 important works and more than 60 translations of On Danjul written by Tibetan scholars, which have made positive contributions to the promotion, research and development of Yin Ming religion.

China's ancient logic developed into the Song and Ming Dynasties, although there were not many outstanding achievements, but the epistemological viewpoints such as "grasping knowledge by things" and "grasping knowledge by things" which prevailed in this period all contained cognitive methods using reasoning. Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi believe that there is only one principle in the world, from which all principles can be deduced. In their view, only people have the ability to "push". "Unreasonability is not to exhaust everything in the world, but to exhaust one thing, and everything else can be" analogized ".Zhu fully affirmed the cognitive function of reasoning from the known to the unknown, thinking that everything is the same, so it is also a kind of reasoning, which can be" extrapolated ". He further pointed out that everything has its own principle, and everything is homologous, so it can be generalized. He put forward the method of "understanding things by grasping things" or "materialism", and asked us to know "reason" exhaustively by contacting and understanding things. It contains the idea of cognitive process from individual to general and the understanding of reasoning methods.

Other thinkers in this period, such as Chen Liang, Ye Shi, Luo Qinshun, Wang Tingxiang and Li Zhi. While criticizing the idealistic philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, this paper discusses the relationship between name and reality, the function of name and argument, and the standard of right and wrong, and puts forward induction and deduction's thinking methods of reasoning, such as "from ten thousand to one" and "from ten thousand to one".

In the Qing Dynasty, with the rise of textual research, people paid more attention to the thought of argumentation in the pre-Qin period. Fu Shan was the first to annotate and study the important works of Mohists and famous scholars. Gu's scientific textual research method not only pays attention to "proving the present with the ancient", but also pays more attention to the reality of the object, that is, summarizes the general understanding from the objective reality and historical facts. In his Record of the Day (Volume 32 * * *), every argument is to ask questions from special events or written statements, and then prove or refute the truth of a conclusion with simple enumeration or typical induction. Wang Fuzhi put forward "well-known", "defined meaning" and "inferential generalization", that is, the thinking form and process of concept, judgment, reasoning and distinguishing similarities and differences. Dai Zhen emphasized the difference between "ten-point theory" and "not-so-ten-point theory" in textual research, which involves logical problems related to hypotheses and arguments. After the early Qing Dynasty, the study of China's ancient logic began gradually, and a number of proofreading monographs such as Mo Bian, Gong Sunzilong, Xun Zi and Han Feizi were published successively.

The Evolution of Modern Logic Thought In the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, with the appearance of capitalist factors in China and the introduction of various western theories, western traditional logic began to be introduced into China. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Li Zhizao (1565 ~ 1630) and Fu translated and published a lecture on logic in medieval Portugal (volume 10), entitled "Exploring the Source of Reason", formerly known as "An Introduction to Aristotle's Arguments", with a total of 25 volumes * *. However, due to the complexity of the book, it did not have any impact at that time. At the end of 19, western logic gradually attracted the attention of China scholars. A Study on the Name of Mill translated by Yan Fu is a classic work of traditional logic by British philosopher and logician Mill (also translated by Mill), formerly known as Logical System. Yan Fu put forward his own logical viewpoint through the notes attached to the book.

In the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Ming Dynasty was re-emphasized by academic circles, and new progress was made in the study of ancient Ming-Bian logic. Liang Qichao, Zhang, Zhang and others not only studied the Ming School formed and developed in the pre-Qin period, but also began to compare China's Ming Debate, western logic and Indian reasoning methods, thus opening a new chapter in the study of China's logic history. Liang Qichao wrote a chapter on Mozi's logic theory in Zi Mo Lun, and made a comparative study of western logic and Mohist logic for the first time. Zhang's original name is based on the three branches of Inming, and both the syllogism founded by Aristotle and the Mohist inference are called the three branches of comparison, and the difference is only the different arrangement order. Zhang's "Essence of Logic" is a logical monograph which takes western logic as the classics and China's logic as the latitude, and "Friendship should be integrated with China and the West". In his article "Distinguishing Famous Scholars from Other Scholars", he also classified Gongsun Long's "Distinguishing Other Scholars" and Mohist's "Three Things" as a syllogism of traditional logic and a trisection of Ming Dynasty. These comparative studies further improved the status of China's ancient logic, deepened our understanding of China's ancient logic, and proved the humanity of logic science.

Since the 1920s, with the wide spread of western traditional logic, modern logic science, namely mathematical logic, has been introduced to China, and gradually attracted the attention of academic and educational circles, and a systematic introduction to mathematical logic has emerged. 1937, the book Logic written by Jin was officially published. It is one of the most influential university textbooks since 1930s. It criticizes and introduces traditional logic and mathematical logic. During this period, many universities in China offered logic courses, some of which were about traditional logic and some were about mathematical logic. This is the period when modern logic began to spread in China. At the same time, the study of modern logic has also made some preliminary achievements.

In the 1930s, while criticizing the metaphysical world outlook and methodology, some people confused formal logic with metaphysics, demanding that dialectical logic (mainly dialectics) be used to replace, transform or sublate formal logic. Others think that only formal logic and its laws are the real cognitive methods and thinking laws. Because both sides regard formal logic as a way of thinking that is opposite to dialectics in philosophy, there was a debate about dialectics and formal logic in the 1930s (see the debate on materialist dialectics). From the perspective of China's development logic, this debate has had a negative impact.

In the first half of the 20th century, China's philosophical circles continued to study the logic of ancient Ming debate and Indian Ming, and achieved some results. 1922, Dr. Hu Shi's thesis "A Study History of Pre-Qin Masters" was published in China. This is China's earliest monograph on the history of logic. Subsequently, Guo's monographs on the history of logic, such as The Debate History of Pre-Qin Dynasty, came out one after another. Some important monographs on Yin Ming studies have also been published, such as Lu Cheng's On Yin Ming (1926), Xiong Shili's Notes on Yin Ming (1926) and Yu Yu's Yin Ming (1936).

The main feature of China's logic thought, the so-called China's logic thought, actually mainly refers to China's ancient logic thought. The basic features of China's logical thought run through the development of China's ancient logic, which are shown as follows: ① China's ancient logic is a logical system of arguing names, including names, words, arguments and arguments. In the pre-Qin period, in view of the reality that "name and substance are different", various schools mainly discussed the problem of name and substance around the concept of nouns and put forward their own opinions on rectifying names. The famous scholar GongSunLong and Confucian scholar Xunzi mainly discuss the logic of correcting the name. In the later period, Mohism not only studied and summarized the logical thought of rectifying the name, but also profoundly summarized the logic of speech, argument and argument, forming a relatively complete ancient logic system. Wang Chong in the Eastern Han Dynasty, the study of Yin Ming after the Tang Dynasty and the comparative study of three logics in modern times are also logical thoughts about reasoning and argumentation. Therefore, China's ancient logic can be called "Xue Ming", "Debate on Xue" or "Debate on Xue".

② The development of ancient logic in China is closely related to language. In the pre-Qin period, "name" was used to express both concepts and characters; "Word" not only has the nature of judgment, but also can refer to sentences or propositions. Therefore, Mohism, especially Xunzi of Confucianism, discussed the nature, formal structure and laws of nouns and words from two aspects of logic and language. But at that time, although some people began to talk about the logical essence of noun polysemy and synonyms, they did not really realize the difference between the logical essence of "name" and "word" and linguistic attributes. Therefore, the mixing or confusion of logic and linguistic attributes is not only the characteristic of China's ancient logic, but also the weakness of China's ancient logic, because it is the easiest to bring about linguistic ambiguity and logical confusion. It is one of the important reasons why China's ancient logic failed to develop in the direction of standardization.

③ The development of China's ancient logic was directly restricted by political ethics. In the pre-Qin period, both Confucius and Xunzi put forward and developed the idea of rectifying the name in order to realize the political proposition of governing the country by rectifying the name. Mohism also gradually established a set of logical theoretical system to establish and demonstrate its unique political ethics. Gong Sunlong has not forgotten the political purpose of "changing the world from a famous name". Therefore, they all regard the political ethics requirements such as "judging chaos", "handling interests" and "being noble and humble" as one of the important purposes of "debate". Some people even talk about name debate or use name debate when discussing political ethics. It was precisely because of the repeated social and political turmoil and constant reform at that time that hundreds of schools of thought contended on the ideological and cultural front in the pre-Qin period, which created conditions for the development and promotion of China's ancient logical thought. However, because of the political and ethical differences and struggles, various schools echoed each other in the thought of name debate. After Qin and Han Dynasties, due to the exclusive admiration of Confucianism by the ruling class, the thoughts of Ming and Mohism almost disappeared, making it difficult for ancient logic to be fully inherited and developed. The origin and establishment of China's logical thought, though earlier than the West and India, was basically interrupted after the pre-Qin period. This is an important reason why China's ancient logic developed slowly and was not as mature as the West.

④ In its long development process, China's ancient logic basically belongs to the category of philosophical epistemology. China's argument logic is often based on the cognitive purpose and practical needs of argument, and studies the thinking form and argument method around the relationship between name and reality. In order to distinguish right from wrong and distinguish similarities and differences, ancient logical thinkers generally can't do without discussing the objective basis and right and wrong standards of name debate from the perspective of epistemology. Therefore, it is required that "name" must conform to reality before it can be called "positive"; "Debate" can only be called "when" if it is right or wrong, the same or different. In the pre-Qin debate, the rationality of thinking form was closely related to the correctness of thinking content, which led to the failure of China's ancient logic to extract a strict form of reasoning, and ultimately failed to be completely independent of epistemology, but only an argument science with epistemological significance, or a logic in epistemology and argumentation. Therefore, in the history of China, those who can be called logical thinkers are generally philosophical thinkers, and most of the works containing logical thoughts are philosophical works.

⑤ The development of ancient logic in China has its own relative independence and inheritance. Although the development of China's ancient logic was restricted and influenced by various political, ethical and philosophical thoughts, due to the inherent humanity and unique research content of logic science, various schools consciously or spontaneously maintained relative independence and inheritance in logic thoughts. One of the reasons why Mohism can establish a relatively complete logical system is that it inherits the logical thoughts of Hui Shi and Gong Sunlong. Hui Shi's reasoning method of "good analogy" and GongSunLong's principle of "only dependence" are clearly reflected in Mo Jing. Although Xunzi strongly criticized Ming and Mohism, his theory of correcting Ming is basically the same as that of Gong Sunlong and Mohism. Therefore, China's ancient logic theory and system is not an original creation, but a positive result of mutual absorption and exploration by famous Mohist, Confucian and Legalist schools.