Sociological Theory Notes 04 - Weber

1) Definition: Sociology is the science devoted to the interpretive understanding of social action and, through that understanding, to the causal account of the processes and effects of social action

Based on this definition, Weber made human social action the object of sociological study . Social action is meaningful and the meaning is understandable. The essence of social action is its spiritual and cultural significance, so there is no other way to study sociology but to understand and explain

? 2 ) Understanding

? From a deterministic point of view, there are two approaches: the rational approach and the re-experiential approach;

a. The rational approach, i.e., to obtain a completely clear and rational grasp of the various factors of action in their intended meanings

b. Re-experiential approaches, such as empathy and art appreciation, Dilthey's "reproduction of the I in you", through sympathetic participation and the ability to appropriately grasp the meaning and significance of the situation, and the ability to understand it. The precision of empathy and appreciation is gained through sympathetic involvement and the ability to appropriately grasp the emotional context in which the action takes place. This approach is very important but not the only necessary condition to understand that Caesar does not have to be Caesar.

In terms of types of operations, understanding is divided into two categories:

a. Directly observed understanding of subjective meaning, where the meaning of a social action can be understood through direct observation of it. Linguistic actions emotions, logical propositions, etc.

b. Interpretive understanding, i.e., grasping the meaning given to an action by the actor in the light of the motivation. It is a rational understanding of motivation that places social action in the context of intelligible, and more intrinsic meaning. The former in understanding the what and what of social action; the latter in understanding the why of social action

? 1) Weber's line of thought is that society is a system of actors whose social actions are meaningful and understandable, and whose understanding must be accompanied by empirical verification. This empirical verification looks for specific causal relationships behind a social phenomenon rather than for laws with universal causal validity. This subjective interpretation and specific verification are summarized in the propositions of "subjective appropriateness" and "causal appropriateness"

a. Subjective appropriateness is the understanding of the process and motivation of a specific social action, and it is an expression of the awareness of the subjective state of mind of the actor and his/her specific purpose

b. Subjective appropriateness is the understanding of the process and motivation of a specific social action. b. Causal appropriateness, which refers to the existence of statistical regularity between the results of understanding from the subjective point of view and the results of observation from the objective point of view

? 2) The object of study of social sciences contains cultural values, with specificity and independence, so there is no law in the social sciences. Only specific cause and effect relationship, the law has the necessity, specific cause and effect relationship has "objective possibility". Objective possibility and causal appropriateness are unified on the basis of understanding, and causal appropriateness is causal appropriateness in objective possibility. Without objective possibility, causal analysis becomes a linear causal decision relationship; without causal appropriateness, the analysis of objective possibility loses its meaning.

1) In order to understand value neutrality, we can first understand its opposite, value judgment

Value judgment is the actual value judgment deduced from ethical, cultural, and philosophical viewpoints, i.e., practical judgment

Value neutrality in science is to get rid of value judgments in the process of research, and to refrain from making value judgments and suspending value judgments

Value judgment is a problem outside the field of science, and cannot be relied on in science. Value judgment is a problem outside the realm of science and cannot be solved by science; it is only a study of "what is" rather than "what ought to be"

?2) Related to value judgment is the relationship between academics and politics: academics should not be involved in politics, and they should distinguish between lectures and speeches. Weber's value-neutrality is a normative principle of scholarship, not a constitutive principle of scholarship itself

Weber's value-neutrality is a normative principle of scholarship, not a constitutive principle of scholarship itself. Value neutrality is not a requirement that scholars should not have their own value judgments, but an admonition that they should not confuse scientific analysis of facts with commentary

1) Question: How can sociological objectivity be achieved when the object of study in the social sciences is unique and objective?

2) The "ideal type" . Does not actually exist, is a precise and valid conceptual system constructed to understand and explain the world. Ideal types are not hypotheses but provide guidance for hypotheses; they are not descriptions of reality but provide clear means of expression for such descriptions

3) Ideal types are understood in two ways:

a. Ideal types are a subjective construct of thought, not based on empirical generalizations of facts or ideals of society, and there is no reality that is value-neutral,The value-neutrality of ideal types guarantees the objective validity of sociological research.

b. Ideal type is a kind of subjective thinking construction, but it is not arbitrary fiction, and never a kind of conceptual game. Rather, it is a method of theory construction in sociology, and its establishment must be logically consistent and not violate empirical causality. There is no unique ideal type of explanation for a given social phenomenon, but there is only one criterion for explanation: successful understanding and accurate attribution of a specific social phenomenon.

? 1) The essence of social action is the action of individuals oriented to the demeanor of others, with a subjective meaning directed at others. Only social action with subjective meaning is understandable and falls within the scope of sociological research. To determine whether an action is a social action, it is necessary to consider whether the action is "directed at others" and whether it has a "subjective meaning".

? 2) According to the degree of reasonableness and rationality, Weber divided social action into four types

a. Purposeful rationality action, that is, through the situation of external things and other people's behavior for the expectation, and use this expectation as a condition or means, with a view to achieve their own rationality to strive for and consider as a fruit of the purpose of the action.

b. Value-rational action, i.e., action by conscious pure belief in the unconditional intrinsic value of a particular behavior (religious, ethical, aesthetic, etc.), regardless of whether or not it is achieved.

c. Emotional action, i.e., action determined by a present emotional or affective condition

d. Conventional action, which is action determined by agreed-upon custom

Instrumental rationality action has the highest degree of rationality, in which the actor has a clear understanding of the end of the action as well as the means of attaining it and consciously chooses to do so;

Value rationality action In the value rationality action, the belief in the ultimate value is the purpose of the actor, after believing in a certain value, whether the purpose is achieved or not is not a consideration;

Traditional action and emotional action are both actions without rational thinking, the former is based on the "habit of doing so, traditionally," and the latter is governed by feelings and emotions. stability and predictability, the latter is the opposite

?1) Weber constructed the ideal type, in reality, does not exist in pure form, the reality of any action has a rational component and irrational component, rational action and irrational action is not two different real actions, but the same reality of two different aspects of the action

?2) the study of economic action, and from the form and In the study of economic action, a distinction is made between formal rationality and substantive rationality from the point of view of form and content

?3) Formal rationality refers to the fact that if all actions in an economic system can be expressed in terms of quantity, i.e., they can be counted and expressed, as far as possible, in terms of monetary units, then they are formally rational. Then these actions are formally rational, that is, they are formally rational economic actions. The degree of rationality is determined by the degree to which the calculation is usable. Money provides a uniform scale of calculation for economic actions, and it is used to calculate the costs and benefits of various economic actions and to compare different forms of behavior. All this is carried out by means of double-entry bookkeeping techniques, which makes monetary calculations the most rational and complete means of economic calculation. Economic actions that utilize the technique of double-entry bookkeeping are those that have the highest degree of formal rationality. The economic operation of modern Western capitalism is this kind of economic action

?4) Substantive rationality , which refers to the supply of a product to an existing group of human beings by means of an economically oriented mode of social action based on the basic requirements of certain values. The degree of reasonableness is related to the actual manner in which the product is distributed and the range of people to whom the product is supplied. Substantive reasonableness is not satisfied with the calculation of the reasonableness of purpose, but rather proposes the idea of the reasonableness of value or the reasonableness of purpose in substance as a way of measuring the results of economic action

?5) Formal ReasonablenessThe only goal of action is the maximization of profit, and any quantifiable action oriented towards this goal Any quantifiable action directed toward this goal is valid, and thus formal rationality is independent of other values and is value neutral. Formal rationality relates only to goals within the economic system, not to goals and values outside the economic system

Substantive rationality seeks to satisfy the needs of all people, and is based on the extrinsic moral ideal of the "liberation of all mankind"

Weber pointed out that capitalist societies are characterized by the irrationality of purpose and value, formal rationality and substantive irrationality, and the irrationality of form and substance. Weber pointed out that capitalist society is a society of rationality of purpose and irrationality of value, rationality of form and irrationality of substance. And all the achievements and problems of modern civilization can be attributed to the tension and opposition between the rationality of purpose and the rationality of value

The analysis of the typical features of the organizational systems of these legitimate forms of domination reveals the tendency to rationalize the organizational systems of Western societies

Domination refers to the opportunity for certain specific commands to be obeyed by a particular group of people. The emergence of such opportunities is often associated with specific interests and with the help of certain power and influence. Fundamentally, it is to solve the problem of the "legitimacy" of the rule, the reality of any form of rule must first face the problem of legitimacy identity, that is, to obtain people's recognition of its rationality. Weber divided it into three types.

?1) Traditional rule, which is based on people's belief in the sanctity of tradition and exists mainly in pre-modern societies. Rulers are defined by rules inherited from tradition and have lifelong power, which they can pass on to their descendants. People obeyed the ruler because of the inherent dignity conferred on them by tradition; the ruler was not a superior but a master. The relationship between the ruler and his members is not one of office duties in matters, but of personal loyalty of the slave. It is not the charter that people obey, but the individual appointed by the ruler as determined by tradition.

Organizational features : Lack of fixed authority established by the rules of affairs; lack of a fixed and rational hierarchy;

? The lack of free contracts and corresponding regulations for the promotion of officials; the lack of business training for the development of the profession;

? The absence of fixed salaries for officials and salaries paid in money

Four traditional types of rule that have emerged in history: elder politics and primitive patriarchy; hereditary and feudalism.

2) Charismatic rule , based on the worship and belief in a leader with extraordinary qualities and special charisma.

Charisma, is the quality of a person seen as extraordinary. A person with powers and qualities that are unmatched by others is seen as a leader.

Whether the charisma of a leading figure is recognized depends on the ruled; being innately charismatic is not a condition for legitimizing rule;

The charisma of a leading figure is subject to enduring tests; the ruling group of charismatic rule is an emotional ****sibling;

Charismatic rule is a non-economic archetypal regime; and charisma is a great revolutionary force in a time of tradition-bound < /p>

Charismatic rule is a form of social rule strictly tied to the charismatic qualities of the individual, with defined social relations that are ephemeral

"Charismatic mundanization," which results in charismatic rule shifting to traditional and juridical rule, or becoming a hybrid form of both

3) Juridical rule , rule based on adherence to formally established laws. It is a modern form of administration

The operation of administrative affairs is continuously governed by rules;

The operation of administrative affairs is carried out within certain limits of authority, and there are "agencies" which operate in accordance with the rules;

There is a fixed hierarchy of posts, and a fixed supervisory and monitoring system;

There is a clear and definite system of supervision.

Clear rules of procedure and professional training of administrative officials;

Complete separation of the administrative team from administrative and productive resources;

Ideal juridical rule, where there is no meaningful private appropriation of office by the incumbent;

The existence of a system of administrative archives, which are integrated into the ongoing functioning of the officials and which make it possible to create an "office", which is the "office" of the government, and which is the "office of the government" of the country. "

Modern capitalist rule by means of hierarchy is the purest type of juridical rule

1) Hierarchy is a special form of juridical rule, a rational form of human organization. Organizations are designed and divided according to the principle of rationality in order to achieve organizational goals effectively. The hierarchy of official positions is organized in a fixed and orderly system according to the centralized system of power, and there are strict rules of authority corresponding to the positions. Organizational functioning is based on impersonal duties, rules and guidelines. The appointment and promotion of officials is based primarily on merit. All this ensures the effective achievement of organizational goals.

?2) In any form of sectional rule, the ruling power of the ruler has legitimate authority. The characteristics are as follows:

The officials are personally free and have the obligation to obey the official position only in things; they are in a fixed hierarchy of offices with fixed competence of office;

The officials are appointed according to a contract founded on free choice, which is the essence of the modern sectional system; the officials are appointed on the basis of qualifications for the professional business;

The officials receive a fixed monetary remuneration and receive a pension; the office is their main occupation; promotion is based on seniority, performance and evaluation by superiors;

officials are completely separated from administrative resources in their work, and may not take their office for themselves; they are subject to strict and uniform disciplinary supervision

?3) The hierarchical system is the most reasonable form of human rule, and is the reasonable direction of development of the future form of social rule, and can maximize the benefits of

?4) Hierarchy has permeated all kinds of organizational behavior in modern society and has an inevitable impact on the life of every modern person. The development of modern organizations and groups has coincided with the development and constant strengthening of the sectional system

?5) The fact that sectionalism implies rule on the basis of knowledge is inherent in its particularly rational and fundamental nature. The sectionalization of rule as a whole will promote rationalization, professionalization, and specialization. And specialists have an advantage over non-specialist government officials

?6) The centralization of power which characterizes the hierarchical system does not prevent the democratic spirit from being nurtured in it. Recruitment of the most qualified people in specialized business tends to level the hierarchy

?7) And Weber also held a mixed sentiment about hierarchy: while affirming it, he was also aware of all its possible drawbacks. The efficiency of hierarchy is at the cost of neglecting human spiritual feelings, and the more completely depersonalized hierarchy is, the more it departs from the dignity of human values. Absolute obedience to rules leads to a lack of creativity and responsibility, and tends to breed arbitrariness and arrogance in officials

? 1) To analyze modern capitalism, two aspects should be grasped: the economic form and the conceptual form (religious ethics). The representative work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, tries to explain why modern forms of capitalism appeared in the West rather than in other civilizations.

? 2) Emphasizes two important factors in the development of rational capitalism, concentrating on the origins of rational capitalism as characterized by the organization of free labor: the legal separation of business and family, public and private property; and rational bookkeeping

Captures the spirit of capitalism in a discussion of the differences between capitalism and pre-capitalism, as manifested in the laborer and in the entrepreneur . The desire of the laborer to make money is not different in the two conditions; the pre-capitalist laborer's lack of self-consciousness in labor is an obstacle to the development of capitalism. In contrast, the laborer under capitalist conditions has a high degree of self-consciousness and responsibility, and regards labor as an absolute end in itself and as a vocation . It is considered that this view of vocation is the most representative thing of bourgeois culture and the fundamental basis of bourgeois culture. Entrepreneurs in pre-capitalism tended to take advantage of all kinds of political opportunities and irrational activities in pursuit of economic success, showing traditional and irrational characteristics. And entrepreneurs under capitalist conditions are fixated on strictly capitalist views and principles, surviving for the sake of the cause rather than running a business for the sake of survival

Luther's view of the profession , the profession is a lifelong task for people, an expression of the individual's own value, and the abandonment of present obligations is selfishness and an evasion of worldly responsibilities

Calvinism's doctrine of favor and predestination , God does not exist for mankind, mankind The Calvinist doctrine of favor and predestination, in which God does not exist for man, but man exists for God, and all creation serves God's glory

Puritan asceticism, in which labor is the goal of life, and wasting time is regarded as the greatest of all sins; only labor, and not idleness, can glorify God. For the Puritans, economic activity was a form of "holy" labor, and wealth was to be used for the glory of God rather than for one's own use, and man was but a tool of God. Protestant denominations shared a vocation and an ascetic ethic, which honored secular professional obligations as the highest form of moral behavior. This gives religious significance to everyday secular behavior and gives religious ethics a certain affinity with secular ethics. The pursuit of wealth through hard work is regarded as a vocation, and the profession as a manifestation of the glory of God. The view of vocation is the key to shaping the spirit of capitalism: it gives workers and entrepreneurs the ethical basis and spiritual motivation to **** the same in their complex economic behavior.