The institutional evolution of China's ancient emperor system

The title of "emperor" originated from the three emperors and five emperors in ancient legends. The emperor system was founded by Qin Shihuang in 22 1 BC, and was completely abolished after the continuous development and strengthening of successive dynasties until the collapse of Yuan Shikai in 19 16, which lasted for 2 137 years. During this period, it has always been an important feature of China's ancient autocratic system, which experienced the process of initial establishment, initial perfection, perfection and maturity, further development, strengthening and extinction.

After more than two thousand years of continuous development, it has formed a complete system with wide content and clear purpose, aiming at safeguarding the authority of the emperor and ensuring the exercise of imperial power. Its characteristics are also very obvious. Mainly includes:

First, the theocracy was further utilized by the imperial power, and the supremacy of the emperor was highlighted by the material civilization and spiritual civilization of the society at that time.

Second, the emperor has supreme authority and absolute power throughout the country, and all major issues such as rules and regulations, all internal and external affairs, peace and war are ruled by the emperor.

Third, all bureaucrats are servants of the emperor, and the huge state institution is the office of the monarch. Fourth, the population and resources of the whole country are the wealth owned by the emperor and can be completely controlled. Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties is the period from the initial establishment to the initial perfection of the emperor system. During this period, the characteristics of the emperor system were mainly manifested in the following aspects:

First of all, theocracy was further utilized by imperial power. When the Qin Dynasty destroyed the Six Kingdoms, the first emperor claimed to be "the spirit of Lai Zong Temple", and later adopted Zou Yan's theory of "the luck of five virtues", and used the theory of the induction between man and nature, "thinking that Zhou was a fire virtue, Qin and Zhou were invincible, and it was a water virtue". Since then, the theory of "five elements against each other" has become the theoretical basis for the new dynasty to replace the old dynasty. During the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu developed the Confucian theory of divine right of monarchy, which put a sacred and mysterious coat on monarchy. The combination of monarchy and theocracy strengthens the principle of inviolability of monarchy.

Second, in order to maintain the dignity of the emperor, the system of rites and music was further strengthened and utilized. Liu Bangling, a famous Confucian scholar Shu, led his disciples to set up court ceremonies, "combining ancient etiquette with Qin Yi". After several months of hard work, in 200 BC, when the newly-built Changle Palace was completed, princes and ministers began to carry out wedding ceremonies. Rulers vigorously strengthen the construction of etiquette, making etiquette a norm and criterion for maintaining social and political order, consolidating hierarchical system, and adjusting various social relations and rights and obligations between people. Etiquette established the emperor's supreme position and hierarchical relationship, making it the basic principle guiding legislation, justice and administration.

Third, the imperial power was consolidated after the intrusion from all sides was eliminated, and it experienced contests and struggles with political forces from all sides. Sui and Tang Dynasties are the perfect and mature period of the emperor system. The Sui Dynasty created a unified situation, and the emperor system was fully developed under the new situation. Before the Sui Dynasty, the honorific name was only "Emperor", which was considered to have fully expressed the most honorable and respected content in the world. When Li Zhi arrived in Tang Gaozong, his ministers named him "Emperor". It means a special title higher than the average emperor, which is the beginning of the title. Since then, the system of honoring titles of emperors was gradually established.

In terms of temple names and tombs, before the Tang Dynasty, the temple names of emperors were rated as "ancestors" or "clans" according to the achievements and status of the late emperors in this dynasty, and not every emperor could enjoy this "honor". Since the Tang Dynasty, the temple name system has been established, in which the founder is called "Zu" and all monarchs are called "Zong" from now on.

In terms of etiquette system, Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty, Tai Changqing, revised Niu Hong's 130 Five Rites, and Emperor Taizong formulated 138 Zhenguan Rites. Xi 'an (130) and Kai (150). There are more and more titles and appellations, and the etiquette rules are becoming more and more detailed. The common feature of these ceremonies is to emphasize the majesty of the emperor.

As far as Fuxi and imperial edicts are concerned, the Qin and Han emperors had six seals, and eight seals were established after Sui Dynasty. Eight kinds of seals have different names and uses. In the aspect of succession to the throne, the rulers of this period constantly strengthened and improved the establishment and management of successors to the throne. The Sui and Tang Dynasties formulated a grand ceremony for conferring the crown prince and set up a large-scale East Palace official office.

In terms of harem system and consort politics, the hierarchy of the harem in Sui and Tang Dynasties was stricter and the harem system was more perfect, especially the status of the queen was further improved on the basis of the previous generation. Judging from the opening ceremony of the Tang Dynasty, the etiquette articles about the empress and the empress dowager in Five Rites account for nearly one-sixth of the whole length, adding the etiquette of "the queen is congratulated by the ministers" and "the maids at home and abroad enter the palace" that were not available in the previous generation. During this period, other aspects of the Mikado system also improved to varying degrees. The Song and Yuan Dynasties were a period of further development of the emperor system.

In terms of etiquette, Song Huizong continued to write 230 volumes of Five Rites of New Rites. In terms of seals and imperial edicts, the system of using seals in Song Dynasty was stricter. "You should share the treasure, the external symbol room is for fun. Please ask the inner Fu Baolang to ask for the treasure, seal it and give it to the outer Fu Baolang. " The purpose of doing this is to make the inside and outside contain each other and prevent disadvantages.

In the Song Dynasty, the position of the empress became more prominent, which was actually a reflection of the improvement of imperial power. With the expansion of imperial power in Song Dynasty, the status of empress rose. At that time, the empress dowager cixi's ceremony of listening to politics was also established. Since Song Taizong, at the beginning of the new emperor's accession to the throne, the empress dowager has become a fixed system. In the aspect of consorts system, the Song Dynasty took better measures. Historically, it is said that "there is no suffering from Hanwang, and there is no suffering from Wu Wei in Tang Dynasty". The main reason lies in "the virtue of supporting the family and the virtue of being a straight mother". In fact, this is nothing more than the result of drawing lessons from Han and Tang dynasties, vigorously strengthening the etiquette system and strengthening the restraint and control of the ideological activities of empresses. In the Song Dynasty, consorts were only given certain status, honor and money, but had no real power. According to the regulations, "there was no outside marriage assistant."

As far as the imperial clan system is concerned, "under the Song system, the king of the imperial clan was born in infancy and was respected. It is useless to exist in name only. Down to it, there is a record that the Jade Emperor is famous, religion is taught, and the suburbs are worshipped, and the National Day has a rank. " In the Song Dynasty, the imperial clan was given a high political and economic treatment, that is, it had no power. After several generations, the imperial clan is basically the same as the ordinary family. The development period was followed by the strengthening period, and the emperor system was strengthened to its peak in the Qing Dynasty. This period is also the period of the demise of the emperor system.

The Qing dynasty tried its best to improve the power of the monarch and ensure the high concentration of state power from the system. In this respect, the Qing dynasty far surpassed the previous dynasties, but at the same time, the contradiction between imperial society and the landlord class ruling group became more and more acute.

In terms of succession to the throne, the competition for the throne by the royal family is very fierce. During the Yong Zhengdi period, apart from killing and persecuting political opponents with a very cruel method, it was fundamentally decided to abolish the method of establishing a crown prince in advance on the premise of the official system and adopt the system of secretly establishing a crown prince. The establishment of this system is the first time in history, which is a denial of the system of making chiefs princes in successive dynasties since 2000, and a breakthrough in feudal laws and regulations and traditional customs. At that time, it took a lot of courage and courage to do so. Judging from its effect, Yongzheng's practice has obvious advantages compared with the old method of letting the eldest son be a prince. The eldest son was disqualified from being destined to be an alternate emperor, which sometimes played an inspiring role among princes.

Qin Shihuang, Qin Zhuang Wang Xiangzi also. King Xiang of Zhuang was born in Zhao Weiqin. When he met Ji, he happily took it, and he was born emperor-in the first month of forty-eight years, he was born in Handan. And life is called politics. Last name is Zhao.

-"Historical Records of Qin Shihuang"