What are the characteristics of modern Chinese grammar

1. Language: Structurally speaking, language is a symbolic system combining phonetics and meaning; functionally speaking, language is the most important communicative and thinking tool for human beings. The elements of language are phonetics, vocabulary and grammar. It has two different forms: spoken and written.

2. Modern Chinese: In a narrow sense, it refers to the ****same language of the modern Han Chinese people - Mandarin, and in a broader sense, it refers to both Mandarin and dialects used by the modern Han Chinese people.

3. Modern Chinese national ****similarity: Modern Chinese national ****similarity is the "Mandarin with Beijing phonetics as the standard, Northern dialect as the basic dialect, and classic modern vernacular writings as the grammatical norms"

4. Dialect: Dialect is commonly known as the local dialect, which is the local branch of the national language, and is only spoken in a certain area, but not in the local area, and not in the local dialect. Dialect: Dialect is commonly known as local dialect, it is a local branch of national language, only in a certain area, it is the language used by the people in the local area.

5. sound quality: also called "timbre", refers to the characteristics of the sound. It is the most important element used to distinguish meaning in a language. There are three main conditions that cause different sounds: different articulators, different ways of articulating, and different *** sounders when articulating.

6. Phonemes: the smallest linguistic unit divided from the point of view of sound quality. It is the smallest unit of the syllable. It can be divided into two categories: consonants and vowels.

7. syllable: it is the basic unit of speech structure and the smallest fragment of speech naturally felt. Generally speaking, one syllable corresponds to one Chinese character, except in the case of paediatrics.

8. Tone: refers to the change of pitch in a syllable which has the function of distinguishing meaning. Chinese is a tonal language.

9. Tone value: refers to the change of syllable height, elevation, straightness and length, that is, the actual reading of tones. There are two characteristics of speech: the tonal value is mainly composed of pitch, the pitch of the tone is determined by the frequency of the high and low; the relative pitch of the tone is continuous, gradual change in pronunciation, there is no stop in the middle of the uyan class of sound.

10. Tone position; from the tone of the tone of the tone is summarized in the tone, called "tone pitch", referred to as "tone position". There are four tones in Mandarin Chinese, namely, /55/ (yinping), /35/ (yangping), /214/ (supersonic), and /51/ (descending).

11. Reposition: A sound position consisting of a sound weight is called a "reposition", or "potential position".

12. Timbre: The duration of a tone is called timbre.

13. Pitch: one of the four elements of speech. It refers to the height of the sound, determined by the number of times the articulator vibrates in a certain period of time, that is, the frequency. In a certain period of time, the vibration is fast, the number of times, the frequency is high, the sound is high; the opposite is low. The voice of the high and low and the length of the vocal folds, thick and thin, tight.

14. Zero consonants: Most syllables in Mandarin begin with a consonant vowel, but there are some syllables that begin with a vowel instead of a consonant, which means that their consonants are "zeros", customarily called "zero consonants".

15. Rhyme: the part of a syllable that follows the vowel. According to the traditional method of analyzing, rhymes are divided into three parts: the beginning, the middle and the end.

16. tonal value: refers to the form of change in the pitch of a syllable, that is, the actual pronunciation of the tone. The relative pitch change is expressed by the five degree marking method, which is the tonal value of these syllables.

17. Tone: Every syllable in Mandarin has a tone, but many syllables in a word or sentence often lose their original tone and are pronounced in a lighter, shorter tone, which is called "tones".

18. 儿化：指是普通话中有些音节的韵母发音时加上一个卷舌的动作，使这韵母带带卷舌音 "儿"(er)的音色的特殊音变现象。

19. Phonological change: refers to a language or dialect, the smallest phonological unit that has the function of distinguishing meaning. It is a class of sounds that are categorized according to their meaning.

20. Tone class: is the type of tone, that is, a language or dialect of the same value of the words are grouped together to establish the class. That is, /55/ (yinping), /35/ (yangping), /214/ (shangsheng), /51/ (dosheng).

21. Phonemic: refers to a language or dialect, the smallest phonological unit that has the role of differentiating meaning. It is a group of sounds that are categorized according to their linguistic meaning.

22. Four calls: According to the vowel pronunciation at the beginning of the rhyme, can be divided into four types of rhymes: open call, Qi-tooth call, combined mouth call, handful of mouth call, referred to as "four calls".

23. Phonemic free variants: all unconditional, i.e., not subject to environmental constraints, can be freely replaced without affecting the meaning of the phonemic variants called "free variants".

24. Non-phonemic phonemes: also called "suprasegmental phonemes". In speech, in addition to sound quality, pitch, stress, and length can also distinguish the phonetic form of a language unit, and thus differentiate meaning, and therefore also constitute phonemic units.

25. Stroke: the smallest unit of a Chinese character.

26. Characters: a system of written symbols to record language, and the most important tool of communication. The world's writing can be divided into two categories: phonetic and ideographic.

27. part: and bias, is composed of strokes with the function of the composition of the Chinese character unit.

28. Hieroglyphics: the method of creating characters that depicts the shape of something, and the characters created by this method are hieroglyphics.

29. Referring Characters: It is the method of using symbols or adding hints on hieroglyphic characters to represent a certain word, and the characters made by this method are referring characters.

30. Huanyi: It is the method of combining two or several parts into one character, and combining the meanings of these parts into the meaning of the new character, and the character created by this method is Huanyi.

31. 形声字：就是由表示字义类属的部件和表示字音的部件組成新字，这种造字法叫做 "形声字"。

32. also sound characters: is the will and form of the word.

33. Polyphonic characters: the words that represent the same meaning have more than one pronunciation.

34. polyphonic characters: a word with different pronunciations and different meanings.

35. Four Definitions: the contents of Chinese character standardization, i.e., the characterization of Chinese characters

(1) Quantitative: the number of characters used in modern Chinese (2) Definitive: the standardized character shapes of characters used in modern Chinese.

(3) Pronunciation: It refers to the standard pronunciation of modern Chinese characters. （

(4) Sequencing: It refers to the order in which modern Chinese characters are arranged.

36. heterographs: a group of characters with the same sound and meaning but different forms.

37. vocabulary: also known as vocabulary, is the sum of all (or a specific range of) words and fixed phrases in a language. Vocabulary is the *** body of words, the building material of language.

38. morphemes: morphemes are the smallest units of sound and meaning in a language.

39. Words: Words are the smallest independently usable linguistic units of a language, consisting of morphemes, which are one level higher than morphemes.

40. Fixed phrases: they are fixed combinations of words and words, in which the words cannot be added, subtracted or changed at will.

Free phrases: they are temporary combinations of words according to the need of expression.

41. abbreviation: is the language after compression and omission of words. It can be divided into two categories: abbreviations and counting words.

42. simple word: a word composed of one morpheme is called a simple word

43. synthetic word: a word composed of two or more morphemes is called a synthetic word. Synthesizers have three types of word formation: compound, additional, and overlapping.

44. Syntax: A simple word in which two or more different syllables are linked together to express a single meaning and cannot be split into two elements. There are three types of word formation: diphthongs, alliterative, and non-diphthongs.

45. Roots: These are morphemes and non-morphemes that have a meaning and are not fixed in their place within a compound word.

Affixes: non-word elements that do not have a meaning, but have a fixed position before or after the word being synthesized.

46. Derivation: the synthesized word formed by consecutive locative morphemes of non-locative morphemes is generally known as derivation

47. Lexical meaning: it is the meaning of the word, including lexical and grammatical meanings, i.e., the content of the word.

The meaning of a word usually refers to its lexical meaning. Lexical meaning has the basic nature of generalization, vagueness and ethnicity.

48. sense: it is an itemized description of the rational meaning of a word.

49. Meaning element: it is the smallest unit of meaning that constitutes the meaning of a word, that is, the distinguishing feature of the meaning of a word, so it is also called semantic component or semantic feature.

Element analysis is to decompose the meaning of a word into a combination of several elements. The method of analyzing the meaning of a word from the point of view of morpheme analysis is called morpheme analysis.

50. Semantic field: It is to classify different words according to their lexical ****similarity or relationship by comparing them with each other. Due to the different relations between the members, it can be divided into class field, order field and relation field.

51. Basic meaning: some words have several meanings, the status of several meanings is not equal, at least one of them is basic and commonly used, called the basic meaning.

Transposition: other terms are usually developed directly or indirectly from the basic meaning, called transitive meaning.

52. Rational meaning: the part of the meaning of the word that is related to the expression of the concept is called rational meaning, or conceptual meaning, the main meaning. Rational meaning is the main part of word meaning.

Color meaning: it is the part of the meaning attached to the rational meaning of the word that expresses the particular feeling given by the person or the context.

53. Homophones: a group of words that are phonetically identical but have no connection between their meanings.

54. Monosyllabic words: words with only one meaning are called monosyllabic words.

Polysemy: A word with two or more meanings is called polysemy.

55. Synonymy: Words with the same or similar meanings form the German language field called synonymy, and each word in the field is called a synonym.

56. Homographs: A group of words with the same written form is called a homograph.

57. Basic vocabulary: the most important part of vocabulary is the basic vocabulary, which, together with grammar, forms the basis of language and is characterized by solidity, productivity and universal usage.

General Vocabulary: The vocabulary other than the basic words in a language is the general vocabulary.

58. Exonyms: also called loanwords, refers to words borrowed from foreign languages.

59. Ancient words: include what is generally called literary words and historical words, which are derived from ancient literary works.

Literary words represent things and phenomena that still exist in the real life of the people, but are not used much in the spoken language because they have been replaced by other words.

Historical words are archaic words that represent things or phenomena in history.

60. cryptonyms:: are special terms used by insiders in individual social groups or secret organizations.

61. Idioms: are fixed phrases that are used consistently and have the color of the written language, and have the characteristics of the meaning of the whole and the structure of the solidity.

62. idioms: short, stereotyped, idiomatic phrases in spoken language, mostly three-word verb-object phrases, but also in other forms.

63. hiatus: an orally fixed phrase with a cryptic character, consisting of two parts similar to the face and the base of a riddle.

64. polyphonic words: also called compound words, are words consisting of two or more syllables.

65. word transformation: a word denoting an object of class A is transformed to refer to an object of a class related to it