Cultural exchanges between China and the West after the Song and Yuan Dynasties

The main cultural exchanges in this period: there are a lot of references.

First, western learning spread to the east.

The greatest contribution of Catholic priests in Ouxi to the East is to spread western culture to China. along with

Before the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the spread of European and American cultures to the East was often indirect, scattered and vague. Only in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties

Western missionaries translated western academic works into Chinese, introduced them to China and made many things.

The theory of matter was unheard of in China at that time. The content is as follows:

literature

Matteo Ricci wrote a book, Miracle of Western Languages, and read Chinese characters in Latin Pinyin. Then Ginny.

(Trigault Nicolas) is the author of a book about western Confucianism, which also talks about Latin pinyin and phonetic symbols.

Its organization is more complete than the miracle of western writing, and it is the earliest work that westerners introduce Latin. China at that time.

Influenced by it, Fang Yizhi's works are elegant, that is, he once cited books.

The Dutch occupied Taiwan Province Province and once set up schools to teach local people Latin. Application documents of scholars at that time

, all in Latin, friends call it "red hair". So in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, many people understood.

To learn Latin.

(2) Astronomical calendar

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the greatest contributions of western missionaries to China were astronomy and calendars. Early years of Wanli

In thirty-eight years, because the eclipse was not checked, mistakes in the old calendar were discovered, including Li Zhizao and Zhou and Wu Senses.

Wait a minute. Please use the western calendar to improve the old one, and recommend Diego de Pantoja, Xiong.

Waiting for western priests. The court did not adopt it, but there was an anti-Christian trend of thought in Nanjing, and it was forbidden to teach driving.

The order of teaching the soil one by one. Later, it continued to the apocalypse and Chongzhen years, and the eclipse error appeared again.

Don't even check hijri. Ming Sizong accepted Xu Guangqi's suggestion and established a calendar bureau under the supervision of Guangqi.

Preside over the revision of the new calendar. That is to say, Chen Wu, the original year of Chongzhen, is the first year of the new calendar, called Chongzhen calendar. And use it.

Li zhizao recruited priests such as Deng, Deng, and Wang. After the beginning, Guangxu

Together with Li Zhizao and Min Longhua, he is engaged in the research and observation of translated books. Li zhi's second year

Algae died, and Xu Guangqi died in the sixth year of Chongzhen. When Guangqi was seriously ill, he recommended people who were familiar with western learning at that time.

Judge Li Tianjing of Shaanxi Province continued to preside over the calendar. In the seventh year of Chongzhen, he wrote a hundred volumes of the imperial calendar, * * * *

It is divided into eleven parts, called Chongzhen Almanac, also known as the Western New Law Almanac. On the calendar revision of Chongzhen for six years

Twenty-six, although the calendar died, it was not implemented. Later, when the Qing soldiers entered the customs, they adopted western religions.

A new calendar was drawn up and Tang Ruowang was appointed as the supervisor. After the soup, ferdinand verbiest was appointed Qin Xiang.

Ferdinand verbiest's death, as well as me (Philip Gerry Malary) and Xu Risheng (Thomas Parela).

, ignatius kogler, Aumigny Kush-Peranen, Gao Shensi.

(Joseph D. EsPi Na), Alexander de Guvea, Bi Xueyuan.

(Cajetanus Pires) and others, either as Qin's or as a consultant.

This paper introduces the translation of western astronomical calendars. His important works include The Meaning of Gankun Style, co-authored by Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao.

The map of mixing and changing the sages said that Xu Guangqi and the priest * * * translated the solar calendar, celestial theory and measurement.

Quan Yi, Ephemeris, Calendar, Eclipse Calendar, Li Tianjing. be in love

The new law (written by Tang Ruowang), the spread of calendars to the west, and the Kangxi perpetual calendar were all compiled by early western priests.

, calendar image test book, instrument image test book, etc.

It was the manufacture of astronomical instruments that was introduced into China at the same time as written works. During the Chongzhen period, a calendar bureau was established.

Under the guidance of western missionaries, such as Deng, Wang and others, various new astronomical instruments were manufactured. include

Seven political instruments, lodging instruments, flat armillary sphere, grain carrier, celestial sphere,

Globe, sundial, clock. Later, most of these musical instruments were destroyed by the thief Li Zicheng.

Tang Ruowang and ferdinand verbiest inherited the Qin Tian basket and rebuilt it. Among astronomical instruments, observing astronomical phenomena is the heaviest.

What is needed is a telescope. The earliest telescope was brought by Matteo Ricci, and the Ming people called it a thousand-mile telescope. Hosted by Xu Guangqi.

During the calendar year, I copied several commemorative cymbals and named them "Peeping".

(3) Geography

The first person who introduced modern world map knowledge to China was Dou Dekun. Matteo Ricci from beginning to end

I drew a map of Kun for my lover when I was in Guangzhou. In the twenty-eighth year of Jin Jing's audience with Zong Shen, in addition to the icon, since

Outside the clock, I once entered a book on maps of various countries. The so-called world map is the world map at that time, and

Description. In addition, Li painted many pictures about Kunming and the whole world. At that time, China people lamented that they had got nothing.

Good people have been carving and spreading it. At one time, there were many different versions of Lee's world map. profit

The characteristics of the world map are as follows: (1) The place described is round; (2) existing latitude and longitude; (3) Existing Arctic and Antarctic

And explain the length of day and night between north and south; (4) There are five continents, namely Europe, Asia and Italy.

Besides Matteo Ricci's Map of the World, the most famous one is Giulio Alleni's Professional Discipline, which he wrote in Yu Tianfang for three years.

Giulio Aleni's works were collected by Matteo Ricci and Diego de Pantoja according to their geographical information.

According to our experience. It was Yang who revised and published it. Most of the contents are recorded by winds all over the world.

The feelings of indigenous people begin with a complete map of the world, which is described on all continents below, and finally comes the words of the four seas. In this book,

Let's describe the situation in Europe, especially in Italy, because ehrlich is an Italian.

After Matteo Ricci and Giulio Aleni, there was a complete map of Kunyu drawn by Ferdinand ferdinand verbiest, which was completed in the 13th year of Kangxi. draw

Made into two hemispheres, there are two volumes, Kun Yu and Tu Shuo, some of which are books about self-interest and love.

Part of it is the addition of new materials.

(4) Mathematics

Mathematics was first translated into Chinese by the Greek mathematician Euclid.

Translated by Ben, Matteo Ricci and Xu. The book was written in thirty-five years of Wanli, and consists of six volumes (the first volume is about

Triangle, volume 2 talks about lines, volume 3 talks about circles, volume 4 talks about circles, and volumes 5 and 6 talk about proportions.

Translation is not the whole of the original book. Five years after the book was published, Xu wrote back to Diego de Pantoga and Xiong Sanba.

Come and review.

In addition to the original geometry, there are the following important mathematical translations:

1. Huan Rong is more meaningful: in the thirty-sixth year of Wanli, Li Zhizao and Matteo Ricci translated together, and the inner and outer starting points of the circle belong to geometry.

Range.

2. Significance of measurement: In the thirty-fifth year of Wanli, Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci jointly translated and discussed the measurement method of high depth and wide distance.

3. The whole meaning of measurement: Xu He wrote, including plane triangle and spherical triangle.

4. Identity arithmetic refers to: Li Zhizao wrote it according to Li Mabao's instructions, and the content is mathematics, including four arithmetic sums.

Reduction method.

5. Grand Exam: It was compiled in the calendar presided over by Xu during the Chongzhen period, and the content quoted Ptolemy.

Mathematical theorem

Since western missionaries spread western mathematical principles to China, China scholars have been influenced by it in various ways.

Mathematical works on western law, such as Xu Guangqi's Gou Gu Yi and Tian Tong.

Theory of Geometry (Du Zhigeng), Almanac (Mei Wending), Cut Eight Lines (Huang Zongxi).

, the legacy of Chishui (by Mei Gu), The Complete Works of Du's Old Books (by Zhang Guan), and constantly increasing the proportion of new methods.

(by Chen Houyao), Measuring Quan Yi (by Yuan Shilong), etc. , like mushrooms after rain, the list goes on.

(5) Physical machinery

(1) far west strange device diagram: "Far west strange device diagram" is China's first mechanical work, and it is also

The first book devoted to western physics. The original book was dictated by Deng, not by Wang.

Compile and draw. Wang Zhengzi Fu Liang,No. Kuixin, was born in Jingyang, Shaanxi. Wan Li ershier

Juren, Jinshi in the second year of the apocalypse. He was baptized into Catholicism and worked with the western missionary Deng Hanyu.

, Giniger and so on are very close. Wang Zheng had better study physics, except for drawing up a strange equipment diagram.

And all kinds of homemade machinery, which the villagers call Zhu Gekongming Resurrection. Odd numbers indicate that a book is an attempt.

Give priority to and explain. There are as many as sixty-six mechanical object names listed, including power names.

There are twenty-nine scales, and their principles include mechanics such as lever, pulley and screw. Gaidengyu

Xin is a friend of physicist Galileo, and his knowledge of physics may be deeply influenced.

So did Galerkin's influence.

In addition to the illustrations of strange objects, Wang Zheng also wrote new illustrations of various objects, which he invented and created himself.

The picture says. According to Wang's works, I know what Wang did with his knowledge of western physics.

Miracle is siphon, crane drink, wheel payment, self-grinding, bicycle,

Loader, cross bolt, lighter, substitute tiller, spiral staircase,

"Folding ladder" and "trap door" (automatic gate opening and closing), etc. These strange devices are either imitations or

Invent.

(2) Taixi Water Law: The book Taixi Water Law consists of six volumes, written by Xiong Sanba, introducing water intake in the West.

Methods of storing water and using water power. Because water conservancy is related to agricultural irrigation, Xu Guangqi later wrote a complete book on agricultural administration.

Its water conservancy part copied the book. Later, in the early Qing dynasty, palace buildings, such as the sprinkler in Yuanmingyuan,

That is, the western water law was adopted and supervised by the western missionary soil.

(3) Clocks and small toys: Matteo Ricci paid tribute to Beijing, which made him the best emperor in the Ming Dynasty.

What interests you is the bell. Before Matteo Ricci, Luo Mingjian who came to China was also a college student.

A bell was given to the Governor of China. Later, in the thirty-eighth year of Wanli, I came to the Jinnige Pavilion in China, and I also took it with me.

There are clocks to pay tribute to.

In addition to clocks and watches, there are also small toys and musical instruments that can be automatic. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, this kind of clock

Watches have been imported in large quantities, especially by emperors and nobles in China. In all kinds of note novels, the clock is concerned.

There are many records in the watch. In the Qing Dynasty, there was a "clock room" in Yuanmingyuan, which was used to entertain and manage clocks and watches.

Up to now, the most exquisite clocks and watches are still preserved in the Forbidden City. from

The input of clocks and various small automatic toys, as well as Wang Zheng's illustrations of strange objects, seems to be in the late Ming Dynasty.

Now, this small machine technology and its knowledge have been widely introduced into China society.

Second, the spread of middle schools to the west.

The missionary soil of the West came from the East. They introduced western learning to China, and at the same time, they also introduced part of China's scholarship into it.

In the west, there has been a cultural exchange, but they have introduced more western learning to China and spread it to the west.

Less study.

The first is the spread of China Confucian classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China and translated four books into Latin for the first time.

Back to Italy, this is the beginning of the western translation of the four books, which was in 1593 (the twenty-first year of Wanli)

. Then in 1626 (the sixth year of the apocalypse), the Belgian missionary Genig translated the Five Classics.

For Latin, and published in Hangzhou, China. Later, in the early years of the Qing Dynasty, the general western missionaries grew up one after another.

The translation of China's Scriptures was sent to Europe, which is called China's ethical philosophy and political thought.

Therefore, it caused a stir in the European ideological circle, and at one time it was very yearning for China, which will be mentioned later in the Qing Dynasty.

The second is Xi Fu from the medical field in China, a Polish priest Bomig who presented credentials to the Pope for the Empress Li Yong.

He wrote a book in Latin about examples of Chinese medicine, which described the treatment of tongue by China people and 200 medical names.

This is the first book that introduces China medicine to the west.

China's exquisite arts and crafts, such as silk and porcelain, were introduced to Europe by businessmen long ago, and only China gardens were used.

Architecture was introduced into Europe in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which once became a trend and was influenced by missionaries.

Influence. 1750, W. Chambers, the architect of the King of England, became the Duke of Kent.

(Kent) built a completely Chinese-style building, with carved fences, jade bricks, rockeries and pagodas.

. In an instant, this trend spread to France and Germany.

It is liked by some German lawyers. The German Earl Kassel built a special village in China.

All its decorations are imitated from China, and even the women in the village wear fine clothes. Germany again.

Ludwig A. Unyer, a gardener, wrote a book about pavilions and gardens in China, with small bridges and flowing water.

Pavilions and pavilions are beautiful and fascinating; If it's not European architecture, it's all.

Qi Chongjun, but none can be compared with the joint storage.

(Each section of this chapter refers to Mr. Zhang's Historical Collection of East-West Traffic and Mr. Zhang's History of East-West Traffic. )

-Excerpted from Chen Zhiping's General History of China, pp. 285-297,

Published by Liming Cultural Enterprise Company, 1977 revised.

Cultural exchanges between China and the West in Qing Dynasty

The communication between China and the West has a history of at least 2,000 years, during which the relationship is intertwined and the cultural exchange is stained.

The introduction of modern western learning into China can be divided into two stages: the first stage began in the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty and flourished in the Qing Dynasty.

During the reign of Kangxi, he died in the middle of Qianlong; The second stage began with the Westernization Movement from Xianfeng to Tongzhi in Qing Dynasty.

Until today.

The import of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties was a secondary reason for Jesuits to preach. Its input is mainly astronomy.

Mathematics comes next, physics comes second, and the rest are geography, science and technology, mining, language and art.

Philosophy is a vassal. Astronomy is the largest building in China, and it has the deepest relationship with academic groups in Qing Dynasty.

Astronomy and mathematics are just equal.

After the spread of western learning to the east, it caused the reaction of subjective neo-Confucianism, which made Ganzi people familiar with astronomy and mathematics at the same time.

His generation has acquired new tools in archaeology, so the wind of sorting out ancient astronomy and mathematics is in full swing. Astronomy and numbers

Knowledge focuses on induction, and the representatives of sinologists all study it intensively, which makes sinology research rich.

Scientific spirit. However, since Yongzheng banned teaching, there was no chance to introduce western learning except in Qin dynasty.

18th century is an era of ups and downs in the early stage of modern Chinese and western cultures. European missionaries, especially the French, are the most famous.

Pastors in China continue to spread the culture of China to the west. 1735 (13th year of Yongzheng), first published in Paris.

"China Yearbook", folio, four volumes thick; The second is the long-term periodical communication collection of Nashu missionary; Another one.

From 1976 (forty-one years after Qianlong) to 18 14 years, the Chinese series was published one after another, with sixteen volumes.

, elaborated the culture of China, and translated The Complete Mirror and its own sequel with De Maila method, which was widely circulated.

In addition to academic works, the series has its own interpretation. Pierre Han Guoying wrote again.

Many articles explain China's Europe in the18th century because of scholars, politicians and people who worship China culture.

The aftermath of missionaries coming to China. He knows that China's culture is superb, and everyone attaches importance to spiritual life.

A country that loves peace and tranquility.

China's culture had a great influence in the west because of the prohibition of teaching in Yongzheng and the interruption of western learning. Europe in the eighteenth century

African scholars, such as German Ray Bunitz and French Voltaire, are all interested in China.

Ethical philosophy is highly respected. Lexler founded the Berlin Science Association to communicate the cultures of China and Europe.

Voltaire even wrote a play The Orphan of Zhao in the Yuan Dynasty, which was highly praised. China, who is very human and reasonable.

Drama returns to European theaters. Quesnay, another physiocratic scholar, often quotes Confucius.

He believed that agriculture was the foundation of wealth. Later, French King Louis XV took the initiative to imitate China and reclaim his native land.

Lift it. Quesnay wanted to inherit Confucian orthodoxy and was called Confucius in Europe. Goethe (Goethe) in its

In the famous drama Faust, there is a phrase "the crystallization of human nature".

, that is to say, China people. Look at Europe in18th century, because of the spread of China classics to the west, it promoted the production of the west.

The Enlightenment, which respected reason and freedom, promoted the reform upsurge of corrupt aristocratic politics and monarchical politics in the West.

/kloc-In the 0/8th century, the interest in the sinicization of Europe spread far and wide. Although France was the center, Britain also resold China from France.

Culture, so that China books described in French are mostly translated into English. The French have long known that it is the essence from the Four Books and Five Classics.

It is impossible for us to know all aspects of China and the living conditions of ordinary people in China by studying translation, but we must take measures against China.

Novels and operas, Zhao's orphan, and well-known European versions are constantly appearing in Europe.

1747 (the 12th year of Qianlong), the newsletter of Jesuits was devoted to gardening in China, making it the 18th.

Europe in the middle of the 20th century was also crazy about "China Gardens". China gardens are characterized by artificial imitation.

Nature, close to nature, makes the integration of art beautiful and gives people a sense of pleasure in the ever-changing landscape.

Garden gardening art can represent. This Chinese garden has also aroused Westerners' understanding of China's architecture, painting and culture.

Interest in plants has become the pursuit of the integration of China's thought and art. As far as influence is concerned, there are ten European arts.

The Rococo era in the middle of the eighth century was characterized by its emphasis on fantasy, liveliness and practicality.

Chinese-style soft and elegant curves and oval exquisite patterns also make European-style Chinese garden layout popular.

In the buildings of princes and nobles. This fanaticism has made China's clothing, porcelain, fans, lacquerware, silks and satins and other utensils.

Embroidery, wardrobe, etc. Was introduced to Europe. It was not until the end of18th century that Europeans' enthusiasm for China culture began.

Disappear.

/kloc-Europeans in the 0/9th century have only a vague impression of China. After the Opium War, western culture followed its ship.

China's culture suffered an unprecedented impact because of the guns and profits. China in shock, launch.

Tongguang's Westernization Movement was defeated in the Sino-Japanese War in order to imitate the western military industry, science and technology culture, and launched the political reform and reform.

Actively import legal and political knowledge, and gradually expand to philosophy, thought, education, economy, society and other aspects.

Discipline. After the Russo-Japanese War, Germany and Japan were imitated and copied, hoping to educate new talents and reform the powerful country. Conduct a comprehensive investigation

In the late Qing Dynasty, western culture rushed into the foundation of China's old culture, and China regretted the importation of western culture.

, and gradually expand. Very extensive

It has surpassed any period in history. In order to play the role of this kind of cultural exchange, western priests and embassies abroad should be promoted first.

, businessmen, international students. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the fanatical study abroad movement cooperated with domestic associations and newspapers.

The vigorous establishment of magazines will enable overseas students and domestic intellectuals to carry out cultural exchanges in the future.

In the tide of western culture, many intellectuals also spread China culture to the west. Among them, I can hold my head high and translate the scriptures.

Gu Hongming made the greatest contribution to the systematic English translation of China's academic masterpieces. Gu, and the word Hongming,No. Fu.

Jane Tongan, who studied in Britain in her early years, went to Edinburgh University to study English literature, and then went to Leipzig University in Germany.

Study engineering. Go back to the shogunate of Zhang Zhidong and do English translation. Yuan Hua is written in English.

Meaning), that China culture is profound. And translated The Analects of Confucius, The Doctrine of the Mean and The University into English to promote national culture.

Merit and reality, as well as the translation of Yan Fu, Qi Lin and Liang Qichao, are all cultural exchanges between China and the West.

Heroes.

Since then, the profound Chinese culture has been injected with new blood, which can rejuvenate when the national culture is declining.

When foreign enemies invaded frequently, the intellectuals in China inherited the enterprising spirit of traditional incense and maintained their inherent superior culture.

In addition, we should integrate into the western new industrial civilization, innovate and seek modernity for the suffering nation-state.

The development path of culture.

In fact, western civilization, especially science and technology and democratic political system, is the common pursuit of almost all backward countries.

Target, not just in China. /kloc-After the middle of the 0/9th century, people all over the world began to "industrialize" enthusiastically.

The contest is not out of date so far. However, western modern civilization also exposed its shortcomings at this time, especially industrialization.

As a result, such as environmental pollution, lack of resources, the emergence of social problems, the horror of nuclear destruction, human beings are

Feel extremely empty and confused mentally. The western land of knowledge has gradually realized the value of China culture.

For example, the British historian Toynbee once called on beautiful women to accept China more.

The ancient moral precepts pay attention to the spiritual strength of Chinese civilization in order to save the crisis facing mankind. Chinese language

In the unprecedented changes, it has been strictly tested and paid attention to by the world again, which fully proves its objective price.

Great value.

Today's world is restless, and the eastern and western cultures are intertwined into a very complicated confluence. The value at this time, China.

Culture should not only integrate the mainstream of western thought, but also transcend the category of thought and shoulder the responsibility of solving human beings.

I believe that China culture will have a brilliant future.

-selected from General History of China edited by Cheng Guangyu, pages 5000-504,

Published by China Culture University Press 1999.