European dynastic royal customs

The British system of government is a constitutional monarchy. The king is the head of state, the supreme judicial officer, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and the Anglican Church "supreme leader", formally have the right to appoint and remove the prime minister, ministers, senior judges, military officers, governors of the dependencies, diplomats, bishops and senior clergy of the Anglican Church, etc., and have to convene, stop and dissolve parliament, ratify the law, declare war and make peace, etc., but the real power of the cabinet. The power to summon, stop and dissolve Parliament, approve laws, declare war and make peace, etc., but the real power was in the Cabinet. Parliament was the highest judicial and legislative body, consisting of the King, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords (the House of Peers) consists of the descendants of the royal family, hereditary peers, newly ordained peers, judges of the Court of Appeal, and the archbishops and bishops of the Church. in November 1999, a bill to reform the House of Lords was passed, which disqualified more than 600 hereditary peers from the House of Lords except for 92 who remained in office, and non-politically appointed members of the House of Lords were to be recommended by a special royal commission. The House of Commons, also known as the House of Commoners, has members elected by universal suffrage in small constituencies with the largest number of votes, for a five-year term. However, the Government may decide to call an early general election. The government has a cabinet system, with the Queen appointing the leader of the party that wins a majority of seats in the parliamentary elections to be the Prime Minister and forming a cabinet, which is accountable to Parliament. The history of the jury in the United Kingdom dates back to the Middle Ages and has been an ingrained part of its criminal legal system ever since. In terms of value choices, it is not difficult to realize that this is in fact also an institutional design that artificially combines jurisprudence and reasoning. The law is certainly the regulator of social relations, but the inherent contradiction of "law is limited and emotion is infinite" has never disappeared; judges are certainly proficient in law, but there is the possibility of mechanical law enforcement and disregard for reason. Jurors from the community, although they do not know the law, but understand the social reasoning. It is difficult for one person to represent the complexities of the social psyche, but 12 people from all walks of life should be considered about right. The combination of a jury that understands sentiments and a judge that is well versed in the law cannot but be an ingenious combination. This is not the same as criticizing the model of litigation without a jury, still less is it the same as saying that the absence of a jury system will inevitably lead to a conflict between sentiment and law. So many civil law countries do not have a jury, there must be other ways of combination, such as the institutional level and operational level. Forms can be varied, but the concept should be similar, that is, the rigidity of the law and the flexibility of the rationale of the overall balance. One point should also be noted that the reason is flexible and non-specific, but the way to absorb the reason and the scope of the reason should be rigid and specific, to prevent the arbitrary erosion of the law.

European court etiquette

A. General etiquette

1. bowing

Bowing is the lower to the superior or between the same level of etiquette. When bowing, you should take off your hat, and hold the center of the front brim of the hat with your right hand (if you are holding something with your right hand, you can use your left hand) to take off the hat. With the right hand hanging down, the body is placed in the upright position, the eyes are fixed on the recipient, and the upper part of the body is tilted forward by about fifteen degrees, after which it is restored to its original position. When removing the cap, the hand used is in the opposite direction of the salute, i.e., when saluting the person on the left, the cap is removed with the right hand; when saluting the person on the right, the cap is removed with the left hand.

2. Nodding of the head

The nodding of the head is an etiquette between peers or equals, and the hat must be removed. If they meet on the road, they can salute each other while walking; if they meet an officer or an elder on the road, they have to stand upright and bow, but if they meet an officer to his subordinates or an elder to a younger one, they can nod their heads or stretch out their right hand or touch the brim of their hats while walking.

3. Raise your hand in salute

Raising your hand in salute is a military etiquette. When you salute, raise your right hand, fingers straight and aligned, fingertips touching the right side of the brim, palm slightly outward, upper arm and shoulder height, eyes on the other party, wait for the other party to answer the salute before you can put your hand down, to the officer or the elders every time you meet should be saluted as usual.

4. Handshake

Handshake is the most common etiquette in Europe and the United States, and is common in many countries around the world. Salute from each other about a step, lean forward slightly, stretching the right hand, four fingers together, the thumb and the separation of the salute to the recipient. Hotel room service must pay attention to, the first guests reach out, before you can shake it, avoid a foot door a foot outside the door and people shake hands, especially four cross handshake. And the first time I met the woman usually do not shake hands, only bowing. Shake hands with men the more tightly, indicating that the deeper the friendship, and women to shake hands must be lighter.

5. Kissing hands

Kissing hands is a kind of etiquette popular in Europe and the United States in the upper class. And the upper class aristocratic women or lady to meet, if the woman first outstretched hand to do the downward spiral, the fingertips will gently lift the kiss. But if the woman does not extend her hand, then no kiss. Kissing ceremony, if the woman's status is higher, to support the bent knee for a half-kneeling, and then shake hands and kiss. This etiquette of the British and French societies attach the greatest importance.

6. Kissing ceremony

Kissing ceremony is the superior to the subordinate, elders to the younger generation, friends, husband and wife to express intimacy, caressing etiquette. Usually a light kiss on the face or forehead of the recipient. When you are happy, or when there is joy or sorrow, you generally also perform the kissing salute to express intimacy and condolences.

7. Embracing

Embracing is a kind of etiquette to express intimate feelings between acquaintances and friends in Europe and America. They hug each other when they meet or say goodbye to show their closeness. Hugging is usually done at the same time as kissing.

II. Dining etiquette

French dining is very polite, generally with a long dining table, male and female hosts sit at each end of the table, the other members of the family or guests at the table on both sides of the hostess side to the male host side of the importance of the diminishing degree of arrangement of tableware, tableware using a variety of different shapes of table knives, forks and spoons, dining tray dining, the desktop can only be present in a dish, remove the previous one to be able to go on the second, but tableware according to this meal all the way to the second, but also the first one, the first one to be able to go on the second. Only one dish can be served on the table, and the second dish can be served only after the previous dish has been removed. However, the tableware is placed on both sides of the diner's plate in accordance with the current dining situation, and is used from the outside in. Generally, the first course is an appetizer soup (soupe), followed by cold cuts (hors-d`?uvre), then the main course (plat de résistance), and finally dessert, with bread available at any time, which is more consumed than in the United Kingdom and the United States. Liqueurs are drunk before the meal, and dry white wines are served with fish and poultry dishes. Meat dishes with dry red wine, the French consume more wine, almost every meal must, and the British and American laws are different, minors are also allowed to drink wine. To the French home guests, can not be like to the British and American home guests, with a bottle of wine and flowers as a gift, which is tantamount to irony hosts do not have enough wine, can only use a box of chocolates as a gift. French dining etiquette has become a classic model for Western banquets.

French restaurants are known for their luxurious manners and flavors, and almost all of the most luxurious and expensive restaurants in the world's major cities are French, and there have been complaints from the British that taking the Concorde from London to Paris for a meal and then flying back, with all the travel costs added up, is cheaper than eating a meal in a French restaurant in London.

France is a world-famous country for its food culture, and there are different specialties in different parts of the country. As the French attach great importance to food, there are a lot of tableware needed when eating French food.

1, meat dishes row meal eating

(1) Cut from the left.

The meat used in French cuisine includes beef, pork, lamb, chicken, duck, etc. There are many types of meat, and they are divided into roasted, grilled, steamed and boiled according to the way they are prepared. When you open the menu, you will find a wide array of meat dishes such as grilled lamb chops, roasted duck, stewed beef, etc., and there are so many different ways to eat them that you will be tempted to eat them.

The first thing to remember is how to eat a steak dinner. Since steak has been the symbol of meat cuisine since ancient times, the way it is eaten has naturally become the basic form of other meat dishes, so it's best to do some research. When you order a steak, the waiter will ask how well it's grilled, and you can have it prepared the way you like it.

When eating, use a fork to hold the meat from the left side, then use a knife to cut the meat along the right side of the fork. If you can't eat the meat in one bite, you can use the knife to cut the meat smaller, to a bite-sized portion, and then send it directly to your mouth with a fork.

(2) The point is to utilize the strength of the knife when pressing down on the meat.

In order to cut through the meat easily, first loosen your shoulders and really hold the meat with your fork. Then gently and slowly move the knife back and forth. The point of force is when you extend the knife out, not when you pull it back in.

(3) Place the obtained dressing on the inside of the plate.

When you order a steak dinner, it comes with a cup of dressing. In a formal setting, you should take the sauce yourself, rather than bothering the waiter to serve it.

First, bring the sauce bowl to the side of the plate, and be careful not to drip on the tablecloth as you pick up the sauce with a spoon. The sauce should not be poured directly onto the steak, but rather placed in appropriate amounts on the inside of the plate, and then cut the meat into bite-sized pieces to dip into the sauce. About two tablespoons of sauce is the optimal amount. After taking the sauce, place the tablespoon on the side of the sauce bowl and pass it on to the next person.

(4) You must not cut the meat all in one piece at the beginning, or all the delicious gravy will run out. If you fork the left side of the meat but start cutting from the right side of the meat; it will be difficult to cut the meat. Since you are holding the fork in your left hand, it is basic to start cutting from the left

side.

Never cut from the right side. If you cut too hard, you will make a loud noise when you cut against the plate. It is difficult to use the knife with your body leaning forward.

(5) Eat all the garnish vegetables. Vegetables placed next to the steak are not just for decoration, but are also added for nutritional balance. Most people leave the watercress behind, but if you don't really like it, it's best not to leave it behind.

Use the soup to get the sauce and place it on the inside of the plate, alternating the vegetables and meat on the side.

Three. Court Etiquette

Medieval period aristocratic etiquette was basically advocated by the French and the French court and generally followed by various other courts.

Nobles, whether friend or foe, must greet each other when they meet, the man (if not wearing full body armor) stipulated that the left hand on the right chest, the right hand to take off the hat, the body slightly bowed forward while nodding. For women, the rules are to bend their legs slightly at the knees and lift the hem of their skirts with both hands, nodding their heads in greeting. If the two sides are on horseback, the man's etiquette remains unchanged, and the woman simply nods her head.

Men, such as full body armor, as long as the horse is not on the hat must be removed, the left hand by the right chest at the same time nodding (no need to bow, because the medieval full-body heavy armor chest and waist is one, it is impossible for you to bend down to). If on a horse, do not have to take off your hat and do not have to press the chest, just nod your head. In addition, the male nobles on horseback met the standing nobles, if the other party is higher than their own title or female, male nobles as long as not wearing armor must dismount and salute. If the horseback rider is wearing armor, a nod of respect is all that is required.

In all cases, the tip of the weapon must be pointed toward the ground (sheathed swords may be unsheathed but must be pointed toward the ground), and those with bows and arrows must return the arrows to their quivers and draw their bows with their right hand before saluting.

Kissing a lady's hand was not yet permitted by etiquette. Kissing the hand was only allowed in the etiquette for the nobles to meet the king and queen: the nobles knelt down on one knee, bowed their heads and kissed the king's and queen's hands to show their reverence. The king and the general nobility also kissed the hands when they met the cardinal in charge of the country's religious affairs: they bowed and kissed the bishop's left hand middle finger wearing a large jeweled ring indicating the identity of the bishop (this ring every bishop has, the Holy See for the gift of the Holy See) Medieval meals must be the host to sit down first, the guests can sit down, the host is obliged to propose the first cup of wine, the first cup of wine, after the host and the guest can be toasted to each other. In the Middle Ages, neither guests nor hosts were allowed to enter the dining room in full armor; gauntlets, gauntlets on the upper arms, gauntlets on the forearms, gauntlets on the forearms, gauntlets on the front and back of the chest, and helmets were not permitted to be worn into the dining room, because such clothing clearly indicated that one was on guard against assassination, and it was a blatant affront to the honor of others. Weapons are allowed though. The better the appetite, the more the host considers the banquet organized a success. Talking while eating and drinking was permitted (after the 17th century it was considered impolite), and a toast had to be made to the last drop of the glass, rather than the current practice of taking a sip. During the meal, the guests and hosts can sing, but it is forbidden to make a lot of noise, if there is a quarrel, no matter who is responsible for the phenomenon, the guests should immediately withdraw from the table. At the end of the meal, the guest must thank the host for his hospitality in words, and when retiring, the guest performs the full set of salutations I mentioned in the previous paragraph.

When the Mass is celebrated in a church, the guests are admitted in the order of status and rank in the court; in the case of equal status, men are given priority over women, and the older over the younger. After Mass, it is the duty of the men to bring holy water to any woman, and the order of going out of the church remains the same according to rank and age, but in case of equality of status and rank, the women are given priority.

Any dispute with another person can be resolved by asking one's good friend to demand a satisfactory explanation from the other person, and if the other person refuses to offer an explanation or if the explanation is unsatisfactory to you, then you may propose a duel; the other person, if he or she realizes his or her mistake at this time, may take the initiative to admit the mistake openly and the duel will be cancelled thereupon; and the other person, if he or she does not intend to admit his or her mistake, will have to take part in the duel. It was not permitted and dishonorable to assassinate an opponent in ambush by the roadside. Only two classes, the nobility and the clergy, had the right to propose a duel; the nobility and the clergy could not propose a duel to a class lower than that of the knights (knights-in-waiting, merchants, peasants, artisans, citizens, and small landowners without titles were all such classes), nor could the nobility propose a duel to the clergy on their own initiative, but only the clergy could propose a duel to the nobility (and in such a case the clergy would send knights in the Crusade to participate in the duel on the clergy's behalf).

Both dueling parties must use the same weapon, so that the dueling party has the right to decide which weapon to use. When a duel is fought, if one side is no longer able to fight or has given up resistance, the other side can be declared the winner. Since the honor of the family is at stake in a duel, the loser will often fight to the death even though he or she knows that he or she is powerless to fight.

Knightly Etiquette

That is, the rituals and etiquette of the knightly class. As a special social class, knights were bound to distinguish themselves from the rest of the class by their special etiquette. Especially the ceremonial part of the etiquette has a very important position in the chivalric system. As the ritual is a reflection of social concepts, the dominant thought in medieval Western Europe is Christianity, so in the knight etiquette and the concept of chivalry has left a deep Christian imprint.

(a) the knight's son baptism ceremony. According to the feudal legal tradition, knighthood was inheritable. Therefore, the son of a knight, especially the eldest son, was qualified as a candidate for knighthood at birth, and the baptismal ceremony of the son of a knight at his first birth was formed. The ceremony was generally divided into three processes. Secular Baptism. Immediately after the birth of a knight's son, the infant is bathed at the command of his father, out of a desire to remind the father of the oath he took as a candidate for knighthood long ago. After the bath, the infant is bound and wrapped with his hands on either side of his body and his legs together, and is covered with a splendid robe. Religious Baptism. This baptism not only makes the infant a Christian, but, more importantly, "when he is taken up from the sacred baptismal dish, he not only becomes a Christian, but has become a Christian knight in his heart ." (Note: Brayford B. Bruton, Medieval Knights and Chivalry, p. 297.) Religious baptisms were followed by celebrations that included such things as singing, dancing, banquets, parades, etc., and immediate jousting tournaments were often held for the newborn babies of knights, and those attending the events often bestowed gifts on the infant.

(2) Knight's Squire Ceremony A young man who aspires to become a knight has to go through a ceremony at the age of 14 in order to acquire the status of a knight's squire. A Knight's Squire is the attendant of a powerful Knight, and is always accompanied by the master Knight, both in times of war and in times of peace. In fact, according to the degree of intimacy with the master and the size of his duties, squires are divided into different ranks. They are: valet, ceremonial valet, table valet, cocktail valet, dinner valet, and so on. The ceremony for a Knight's Squire to become a Knight's Squire generally goes like this: the boy is led by his father to the priest, who holds a small sacred candle in each of their hands. The priest prays and blesses the sword and sash that will be in the sole possession of the boy. He is then fitted with the sword, which symbolizes the status of a knight squire.

(3) Knight Granting Ceremony The Knight Granting Ceremony is a ceremony that confirms knighthood. Throughout the medieval era, it was the most important moment in the life of a knight, as it was the most authoritative ceremony in the chivalric system. The knighting ceremony has already been discussed in detail, so I will not repeat it here. It should be noted that the ceremony is held in addition to some Christian festivals, pilgrimages or major events in the noble family, there are two other cases: one is before the battle or after the battle, the case in the 14th and 15th centuries are not uncommon. In 1337, for example, when the Anglo-French War was about to break out, the English held an investiture ceremony for 20 knights on March 11th. The second was the king or a great feudal lord in the course of a journey. The first record of this occurred on September 31, 1354, when Charles IV knighted Francis. At that time, the Kaiser rode on his horse, clapped his hand on Francis' neck and said, "Become a good knight and be loyal to the empire." Two noblemen of Charles' retinue then placed spurs on him (Note: Richard Barber, Knights and Chivalry, pp. 41, 42.) .

If the various rituals of knighthood are part of the normative aspects of chivalry, chivalric etiquette is part of the lived aspects of chivalry, which involves the knight's clothing, food, and shelter. For example, a knight should dress neatly and keep his manners in front of lords and noblewomen; he should not scratch his body or lean against a pillar when standing; he should not sit down until he is told to do so, and a knight's squire is not allowed to take a seat with a knight ***, even if the knight is his father; he should not dip his meat into the salt in the salt dish, wipe his nose on the tablecloth, or pick his teeth with his pocketknife"; when traveling, he should not "dip his meat in the salt in the salt dish, wipe his nose on the tablecloth, or pick his teeth with a pocketknife"; and he should not "pick his teeth in the tablecloth". When traveling, "walk nobly and solemnly, throw no twigs or stones at animals, call no dog to bite, and be courteous to others"; and in general, "attend the religious services of the churches, be chivalrous to the women, and obey your master's commands" (N.B.). " (Note: Joseph R. Strayer, Dictionary of the Middle Ages, New York, 1982 edition, pp. 660, 661.) etc. Although the historical material dealing with this aspect is more vague and fragmentary, we can still get a glimpse of the Western rites in recent times. It can be seen that although the rituals and rites of the knights had secular components, what people experienced was more of a Christian flavor. Religiosity permeated the life of knights and greatly influenced the ideology of the knightly class. "One cannot be a knight without being a Christian and without being baptized"; "Without faith, you cannot perform the duties of a knight well" (Note: Leon Gautier, Chivalry (Leon Gautier. Chivalry), New York 1968 edition, p. 10). .

Religious fervor, therefore, prevailed during the period of chivalry's prevalence, and knights were given the name of Christian knights. A number of chivalric flowers such as the Teutonic Knights, the Knights of the Hospital, and the Knights Templar, who were at one time subordinate to the Pope, became models of chivalry. In short, by sorting out the tangible institutional level, the author believes that medieval Western European chivalry refers to the general term for the organizational system, legal norms, moral code, habits of life, and many other aspects peculiar to the knightly class based on military cognacs, characterized by knightly service, with Christianity as the guiding ideology, and small and medium-sized feudal lords' domination as the essence of the knightly class. Noble etiquette in the medieval period was basically advocated by the French and the French court, and generally emulated by various other courts.

After the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with the fusion of nobility and knighthood, a clear hierarchy among the nobility began to form, and to become a nobleman one had to become a knight, and the hierarchical and group nature was obvious. Knights must be descended from knights, this gap and other classes of the group widened, so that the nobility has a clear closed, and the nobility within the nobility is also divided into different registrations, showing different power:

Dukes, this title is awarded to tribal leaders, for the ruler of a place, still have political, economic, legal and rights, these people behavior often determines the destiny of many, who are only a nominal subordination.

Marquises, mostly border governors, were sent by the state to rule several counties as governors of the border regions; most of these men came from large local families and were semi-independent forces who could appoint local officials.

The counts, the local administrators, such as the heads of counties, were appointed by the king and became semi-independent after a long time. The duke's appointees, also called counts, had great power, especially on behalf of the duke, who often became the ruler from the maintainer of the social order, such as the Earl of Anjou, who established the Anjou dynasty in England, and the Count of Champagne in France.

The above three kinds of nobles were the high nobles, all of them possessed a large amount of territory, and were able to rule independently or semi-independently.

Viscounts started out as retainers or assistants to the high nobles, taking them to deal with matters and judicial cases. In the absence of the senior nobles, they could exercise their power independently, and later on, they began to build castles and form small ruling centers.

Barons, mostly connected to the army, were knight leaders who received land from the king in exchange for military service, and a baron had at least 40 to 50 knight lords (a knight lord was the amount of land needed to support one knight).

The characteristics of nobility were also reflected in various other aspects of social life.

Clothing, food, housing and transportation: the colors and styles of clothing were regulated by law, and non-nobles were not allowed to wear gold or silver, velvet or fur. Peasants can only wear black and gray, the nobility can pursue flamboyance, was the promoter of clothing reform at the time; but there were still many defects on the clothing, such as no shirt, pajamas, and men and women's clothing styles are not very different. In terms of diet, there are restrictions and economic strength of the two differences. Such as game: peacock, venison, swan belongs to the restriction; and because of the smell of game, the backwardness of the storage technology at that time, so that the long-distance transportation spices from the East can be equal to the value of gold, and became the patent of the aristocracy at that time. In terms of residence, the medieval nobility for the land aristocracy, they dress land and born, in the center of the manor house has noble residence, but the master will not live long; another is the castle on behalf of the power of the land, initially is the royal privilege, generally established in the mountains, is easily defensible and difficult to attack the place, a defensive based and represents the power, do not pursue comfort, the interior is damp, dark; castle role of the role of the many, not only is the noble family's It is not only the residence and social place of the noble family, but also a place of refuge for the surrounding residents in times of war.

Marriage and family status: the marriage of the medieval nobles was a political marriage, and the purpose of the marriage of the nobles was to continue the offspring and strengthen the ties between the noble families. A marriage could form alliances and resolve conflicts. Therefore, the eldest son of the nobles considered more political factors, while the second son without the right to inheritance considered the economic interests, so the pursuit of widows became a custom at that time. Because there was no free love in the Middle Ages and marriages were arranged by parents and families, although the status of women was low at that time, noblewomen were the exception. They had a dual role, on the one hand, they were good wives and mothers, who took the responsibility of teaching their husbands and taking care of the family; on the other hand, they were the archetypal Romantics, who became the object of the knights' pursuit and the ideal of adoration; what they brought was the ideal of purity, nobility and love. At that time, the noble family was an expanded family in the sense that it included servants, servants and dependents, i.e., poor relatives, fosters and knights, etc. If a person could live in the noble family for one year and one day, he could become a full member of the family, and thus there were a lot of things in the castle of the nobles. Families at that time were centered on patriarchy, but the foster care system at that time made the relationship between children and their biological parents very weak.

The nobility belonged to the upper class in medieval society, so all aspects were characterized, for example, the nobility was associated only with the nobility, the customs of life were fixed, the connections were fixed, and there was a sense of nobility for everyone*** within the closed group, which was made to be established by an external decree to make the class fixed and to form a clear boundary with the rest of the class.

By the middle of the Middle Ages, the consciousness of the aristocratic group was obvious, and there were mainly the following manifestations:

First of all, the aristocrats consciously divided the boundaries with the freemen. Becoming a nobleman was not only a property requirement, but also had to go through the ordination ceremony, which became increasingly strict, making it possible for nobles to arise only from noble sons and daughters, and the ordination could only be carried out by the king, and the conditions for becoming a nobleman became increasingly harsh.

Secondly, the nobility began to pay more attention to genealogy, in which there can be no ambiguity. The nobility also began to adopt a coat of arms, the origin of which was related to war, when the two warring sides used to use a special mark to distinguish the enemy from the enemy, which gradually evolved into the coat of arms of the nobility.

Then, as a nobleman, there was a strict distinction between the occupations of the nobility and the rest of the population, and most of the work they did was associated with war. The society of the time generally categorized the types of jobs into combatants, prayers (church) and laborers (peasants), and combat was a privilege of knights and nobles as well as a symbol of status.

Finally, the lifestyle and concepts of the nobility were different from the other classes in that they prized loyalty, romance, and poise. Their honor is not tarnished.

The nobility itself as a relatively independent class, but there was mobility among them, especially in the late period, with the development of the commodity economy and the increase in the mobility of components of society, the late Middle Ages also began to have the Lower Zeng people to join the ranks. Some of them joined through marriage because of the imbalance of the ratio of men to women within the noble group, and there were marriages between the lower families and the nobility; some of them were honored with the title of nobility because of their outstanding performance in the service of the royal family and the nobility; and some of them were economically rich and rose to be nobles by virtue of their economic strength. At the same time, there were also landless and ragged nobles, and the family crest became a symbol of poverty