The first year of geography must be a summary of knowledge points, who has, to help a little help, urgent ah, summarize the knowledge points to be comprehensive, but the content is not too much!

1.1 Earth's cosmic environment

Celestial system: celestial bodies are attracted to each other due to the force of gravity and each other around the formation of the celestial system. Structural level (omitted)

Visible Universe: also known as the "known universe", refers to the finite universe that has been observed by human beings, with a radius of about 14 billion light-years.

Conditions for life on Earth:

External conditions: stable sunlight

Major asteroids and minor asteroids in their respective paths, making the Earth a relatively safe cosmic environment

Internal conditions: moderate distance between the sun and the earth (150 million kilometers) - suitable temperature

Moderate mass and high temperature of the Earth

The Earth's volume and mass of the Earth are the same as the Earth's. The Earth's temperature is the highest in the universe. p>Moderate mass of the Earth's volume and the primitive atmosphere after a long period of evolution - suitable for biological respiration of the atmosphere

The Earth's internal water vapor escapes to form the hydrosphere

1.2 The Sun's influence on the Earth

I. Solar radiation: the Sun in the form of electromagnetic waves of the energy radiated into cosmic space.

1 source of energy: fusion reaction in the center of the sun (four hydrogen nuclei fusion into helium nuclei, and release a large amount of energy);

2 characteristics: solar radiation is a short-wave radiation, the energy is mainly concentrated in the visible part of the wavelength shorter;

3 significance: to maintain the temperature of the earth's surface, the earth's atmospheric movement, water cycle and life activities and other movements of the main power. The main source of energy for human production and life.

Solar constant: indicates that the solar radiation can reach the upper boundary of the atmosphere energy index, the size of 8.24 joules/cm2. minutes.

Two: the impact of solar activity on the Earth

1 The external structure of the Sun: refers to the structure of the Sun's atmosphere, from inside to outside is divided into the photosphere, chromosphere and corona three layers

2 Impact on the Earth: (sunspots are a sign of the strength of the solar activity, the cycle of about 11 years)

(Atmosphere) Solar Activity Impacts

Outside the Sun Corona Solar winds Magnetic storms, auroras

Color globes Flares Interference with radio shortwave communications

Solaris

Photosphere Sunspots Effects on Earth's climate

1.3 Motion of the Earth

I. Basic Characteristics of the Earth's Rotation and Autonomy

Rotation Autonomy

Orbits Ellipses of approximately positive circles

Orbits From West to east (counterclockwise when viewed over the north celestial pole) West to east (counterclockwise when viewed over the North Pole, clockwise when viewed over the South Pole)

Period sidereal year (365d6h9m10s) sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds) a true period

Angular velocity average 1?/day perihelion (early January) fastest

Apohelion (early July) slowest Equal everywhere. 15?/hour (except the poles)

Linear velocity average 30 km/h Decreasing from the equator to the poles, the same latitude, the linear velocity of the same size;

Equator 1670Km\h, the poles of the 0

Two, the Earth's rotation of the geographic significance of the

(1) day and night: the cycle of a solar day (24h). Interpretation of the morning and evening lines.

(2) local time: different moments due to different longitudes. Early in the east and late in the west.

(3) geostrophic bias: the direction of motion of objects moving horizontally along the surface of the earth is shifted, the northern hemisphere right-handed, the southern hemisphere left-handed, and not biased at the equator. (Northern hemisphere with the right hand, the southern hemisphere with the left hand reading)

Three, the relationship between the rotation of the Earth and the rotation:

(1) yellow and red angle of intersection: the plane of the equator and the plane of the ecliptic angle of intersection. Currently about 23.5? If the angle becomes larger, the tropical and cold zones expand and the temperate zone shrinks. If the angle of equinox becomes smaller, the temperate zone expands and the tropical and cold zones shrink.

(2) Because the existence of the angle of yellow and red and the direction of the Earth's axis remains unchanged, resulting in the return of the sun's point of direct sunlight in the south and north of the Tropic of Capricorn between the return to move

Four: the geographic significance of the Earth's rotation

1 changes in the length of day and night:

1) at a certain point in time in the global situation: the hemisphere where the point of direct sunlight, the day is longer than the night, the higher the latitude, the longer the day, the pole near the phenomenon of extreme daytime, the other hemisphere, the day is long, and the other hemisphere is long. The other hemisphere, the day is shorter than the night, the higher the latitude, the shorter the day, and the polar night near the pole.

2) For a particular place, the day is longest on the summer solstice and shortest on the winter solstice.

3) Vernal and autumnal equinoxes: global equalization of day and night;

4) Equalization of day and night on the equator throughout the year. The higher the latitude, the greater the variation in the length of day and night.

2 Changes in the height of the sun at noon:

1) Sunrise and sunset (morning and evening lines) when the sun's altitude = 0 degrees, the maximum solar altitude of the day for the height of the sun at noon that is, the sun's altitude at 12 o'clock local time.

2) The global situation at a certain moment: the height of the sun at noon decreases from the latitude of the point of direct sunlight to both sides, the farther away from the point of direct sunlight, the smaller the height of the sun at noon.

3) the situation of a place throughout the year: north of the Tropic of Cancer, the maximum occurs on June 22, the minimum occurs on December 22; south of the Tropic of Cancer, the minimum occurs on June 22, the minimum occurs on December 22; between the Tropic of Cancer, the maximum occurs in the point of direct sunlight passing through the latitude of the time (i.e., the sun directly), the minimum occurs in the winter solstice.

3 The formation and division of seasons: astronomical seasons (the season with the highest solar altitude and the longest day in a year is summer, and vice versa for winter, for example, China's traditional four seasons), climatic seasons (northern hemisphere summers of 6, 7 and 8, and winters of 12, 1 and 2)

4 Formation and division of the five zones: the division by the line of regression and the polar circle.

Regression line = the number of yellow and red intersection angle, the polar circle = 90 degrees - the number of yellow and red intersection angle

5: the interpretation of the light map

(1) to determine the north and south poles, from the Earth's North Pole to look at the Earth's rotation is counterclockwise from the South Pole to look at the clockwise; or to look at the longitude, longitude degrees east of the direction of increasing (or west of the number of degrees of longitude decreasing) that is, the direction of the Earth's rotation.

(2) determine the festival, the date and the latitude of the sun's point of direct sunlight morning and evening circle over the poles (or overlap with a meridian), the sun's point of direct sunlight at the equator, is the day of the equinoxes; morning and evening line tangent to the polar circle, if the Arctic Circle for the phenomenon of polar day for the northern hemisphere's summer solstice, the sun's point of direct sunlight in the Tropic of Cancer, if the Arctic Circle for the phenomenon of polar night for the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere, the sun's point of direct sunlight in the Tropic of Capricorn.

Determination of latitude and longitude of the point of direct sunlight: latitude determined by the latitude of the direct line of latitude, longitude determined by the local time of 12 o'clock in the meridian

(3) to determine the local time in the light map, the sun's point of direct sunlight in the meridian (i.e., the day hemisphere of the central line of meridian) is 12 o'clock, the central line of meridian of the night hemisphere is 0 o'clock, the morning line of the line of longitude of the equator and the equatorial intersection of the meridian of the 6 o'clock, the line of twilight and equatorial intersection of the meridian of the 18 o'clock. meridian is 18 o'clock.

(4) determine the length of day and night: day length = (12 - sunrise time) × 2 = (sunset time - 12) × 2.

(5) Calculation of the angle of the height of the sun at noon

A certain latitude height of the sun at noon = 900 - latitude difference (latitudinal distance) between the latitude and the point of direct sunlight. difference (latitude distance).

6: zone time, local time calculation

1 local time: the difference between the two local time = longitude difference × 4 minutes, east plus west minus.

2 District time: to determine the time zone where the two places, calculate the time difference between the two districts how many hours, east plus west minus. T1 a T2 = N1 a N2 (east time zone is positive, west time zone is negative), T for the district time, N for the time zone serial number.

3 The relationship between local time and zone time: zone time = the local time of the central meridian of the time zone.

4 International Date Line: To avoid the disorder of the date on the earth and artificially delineated, there are three places do not coincide with the 1800 meridian; in the date conversion, from east to west through the day line, the date plus one day, from west to east through the day line, the date minus one day.

1.4 The Structure of the Earth

I. The External Structure of the Earth

Beyond the crust of the earth can be divided into three external circles: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere.

The internal structure of the Earth

The division of the Earth's inner circles is based on the propagation of seismic waves and the speed of propagation.

Circumference Scope Characteristics

Crust Above the Moho surface Solid: average thickness of 17 kilometers (average thickness of the continental part is about 33 kilometers, and the average thickness of the oceanic part is about 6 kilometers). The higher the terrain, the thicker the crust.

Moho surface (33km below the surface, the wave speed of both longitudinal and transverse waves increases significantly)

Mantle Between Moho and Gutenberg surfaces Characterized by a solid state, it mainly consists of iron and magnesium-bearing silicate minerals, with iron and magnesium content increasing gradually from top to bottom.

Gutenberg surface (2900 km deep from the surface, deceleration of longitudinal waves, disappearance of transverse waves)

Earth's core Below the Gutenberg surface Constituent materials may be iron and nickel at extremely high temperatures and high pressures. It can be divided into an inner core and an outer core; the outer core material is in a liquid or molten state, and the inner core is in a solid state.

The extent of the lithosphere: it includes all of the Earth's crust and the top of the upper mantle (above the soft flow layer) and consists of rocks.

2.1 Composition of the Earth's crust and the cycle of materials

I: the composition of the crust and the cycle of materials

(1) minerals that make up the rock

elements: from more to less oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and so on

combined into a monomer or a compound

minerals: the most basic units of the rock composition, the major rock-forming minerals are quartz, dolomite, mica, and other minerals. Rock-forming minerals include quartz, mica, feldspar, calcite, etc.

Accumulation Igneous rocks: intrusive rocks and ejecta rocks, typical intrusive rocks: granite; ejecta rocks: basalt

Rocks Sedimentary rocks: with a layered structure, often containing fossils, including (limestone, shale, sandstone, conglomerate, etc.)

Metamorphic rocks: rocks formed by metamorphism, such as marble, quartzite, slate

(2) Cycling of materials in the Earth's crust

Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks Magmatic rocks

2.2 Earth's Surface Morphology

I: Geological Actions: According to the source of energy, it is classified into internal (internal energy of the Earth) and external (mainly solar energy)

Internal: crustal movements, Magmatic activity, metamorphism, earthquakes, etc.

External forces: weathering, erosion, transport, deposition, solidification into rock, mudslides, landslides, landslides also belong to external forces.

Two: internal forces and surface morphology

1 Basic arguments of plate tectonics:

(1) The global lithosphere is not a whole piece, but can be divided into six basic plates (name and distribution).

(2) The plates are in constant motion, the inner plates are relatively stable, and the crust at the plate boundaries is active, with many volcanoes and earthquakes.

(3) Plate rift often form rift valleys or oceans, such as the East African Rift Valley, the Atlantic Ocean; plate collision and extrusion, often form trenches and orogenic zones, when the ocean and continental plates collide, the formation of trench-island arc or trench-coastal mountain range, when the continent and continental plates collide to form a huge folded mountain range.

Boundary type Region Junction Plate

Growth Boundary

(Plate Tension Rift) East African Rift Valley Interior of the African Plate

Red Sea Indian Ocean-Africa

Atlantic Ocean Sub-European, Africa-America

Iceland (part of the Atlantic Ridge) Asia-Europe -America

Extinction Boundary

(Plate Collision) Himalayas India-Asia-Europe

Alps, Mediterranean Sea Africa-Asia-Europe

Western Pacific Trench-Island Arc Chain Pacific Ocean -Asia-Europe

Rocky Mountains Pacific Ocean-America

Andes Mountains Antarctica-America

2 Geological Tectonics and Tectonic Landforms

(1) Geological Tectonics: deformation and dislocation of the earth's crust due to crustal movements. (Deformation a fold, dislocation a fault)

(2) Common geological formations and tectonic landforms

Folds Rock formations Uneroded surface formations

(general condition) Inversion of topography

(dorsal slopes become valleys, and dorsal slopes become mountains) Relationship with human production

Dorsal slopes Rock formations arch upward

Old in the center, new on the two flanks. Become mountains The top of the dorsal slope is subject to tension and is often eroded into valleys Storage of oil and gas formations

Build tunnels

Dorsal slope The rock layers curve downward

New in the center, old in the flanks Become valleys The dorsal slope is squeezed and not easy to be eroded, but instead becomes a mountain range Storage of groundwater

Faults The dislocation of the rock blocks along the sides of the fracture plane Landmarks: Mount Huashan, Mount Lushan, Mount Tai, Emei Mountain, etc.; Graben: Weihe Plain, Fenhe Valley, Turpan Basin, East Africa Rift Valley, and so on. Engineering and construction of faults must be reinforced or avoided

Three: volcanic, seismic activity and surface morphology

Volcanoes, earthquakes are a strong form of release of energy within the Earth, but also a specific expression of the role of the internal forces, volcanic eruptions often form volcanic cones, craters, etc.; earthquakes, the Earth's crust will be ruptured and the wrong movement.

Four, external forces and surface morphology

1 external forms: including weathering, erosion and transport, deposition, consolidation of rock-forming role

2 external forces and landscape

Erosion, deposition

Flowing water effect Scouring of the ground surface, so that the deepening of the valley widening, the formation of gullies and valleys of the erosion of the flowing landforms Sediment accumulation to form the front of the mountain alluvial fans, rivers, rivers and alluvial plains in the middle and lower reaches, the river. Alluvial plains in the middle and lower reaches of rivers and estuarine deltas

Wind action Wind erosion of gullies, wind-eroded depressions, wind-eroded mushrooms, Yardang landforms, etc. Wind sand accumulation to form sand dunes, sand ridges, and loess accumulations along the edges of deserts

2.3 Atmospheric Environment

A. Vertical Layering of the Atmosphere

1) Composition of the Lower Atmosphere: dry and clean air (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone, etc.), water vapor, and solid impurities (nitrogen, carbon dioxide, ozone, etc.). water vapor and solid impurities (necessary conditions for cloud formation and rain)

2): vertical stratification of the atmosphere

Height Temperature Atmospheric motion Impact on human activities

Upper atmosphere 2000-3000 km Ionosphere Reflects Radio Waves

Stratosphere 50-55 km Rises with height Horizontal motion Ozone absorbs ultraviolet rays Warming. Beneficial to high-altitude flight

Troposphere Low latitude thick: 17-18 km, mid-latitude: 10-12 km, high latitude thin: 8-9 km Decreasing with height Convective movement Weather phenomena are complex and changeable, and the closest relationship with mankind

Tropospheric atmospheric heating process

1 weakening of solar radiation

absorption: with a Selective, water vapor and carbon dioxide absorbs infrared, ozone absorbs ultraviolet, for the visible part of the absorption is relatively small

Reflection: non-selective, the more clouds, dust, the stronger the reflection. Example cloudy daytime temperatures are not too high.

Scattering: selective, for the shorter wavelength of the basket violet light is easily scattered. For example, a clear sky is blue in color.

2 insulation effect on the ground: ① ground absorption of solar short-wave radiation warming, long-wave radiation on the ground ② CO2 and water vapor in the atmosphere strongly absorbs long-wave radiation on the ground and warming ③ atmospheric inversion of radiation on the ground to compensate for the heat, and play a role in insulation.

3 The main factors affecting the size of the ground radiation (how much solar radiation): latitude factors, the size of the sun's altitude angle is different, resulting in the ground heating area and the length of the journey of the solar radiation through the atmosphere is the main factor affecting the size of it at the same time, the size by the undercushion factors (albedo) and meteorological factors and other influences.

Three, the global atmospheric circulation

(a) thermal circulation: due to the uneven heating and cooling of the ground and the formation of air circulation, is one of the simplest forms of atmospheric movement.

The uneven heating and cooling between the surfaces is the fundamental cause of atmospheric motion, and the difference in horizontal air pressure is the direct cause of the horizontal motion of the atmosphere

(ii) Horizontal Motion of the Atmosphere---Wind

High-altitude winds: Under the action of the horizontal barometric pressure gradient force and the geostrophic bias, the winds are parallel to the isobars

Wind Direction (Rightward bias in the Northern Hemisphere, leftward in the Southern Hemisphere)

Wind Direction (Rightward bias in the Northern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere leftward)

Near-surface winds: under the influence of friction, the winds cross the isobar diagonally and point to the low pressure.

Horizontal pressure gradient force: perpendicular to the isobar, pointing to low pressure, the driving force of horizontal atmospheric motion

Geostrophic deflection force: perpendicular to the wind direction (northern hemisphere on the right side of the wind direction, southern hemisphere on the left side), only changes the wind direction, does not affect the wind speed.

Friction: opposite to the direction of the wind, reduces the wind speed and changes the wind direction (the greater the friction, the greater the angle between the wind direction and the isobar)

Wind (wind speed): the denser the isobar, the greater the speed of the wind (force)

(C) the distribution of global pressure and wind zones

The names and locations of the seven pressure zones and the six wind zones, and note that each of them has its own wind direction, and the causes of the pressure zone. wind direction, and the causes of the pressure belts (thermal or dynamical causes).

(d) the movement of air pressure and wind zones: air pressure and wind zones move with the movement of the Sun's point of direct sunlight, for the Northern Hemisphere, roughly northward in the summer, the position of the north; in winter, the position of the southward, the position of the south.

Four, the distribution of land and sea on the impact of atmospheric circulation

Because of the differences in the thermal properties of land and sea, destroying the continuous distribution of barotropic belts and wind belts, so that the northern hemisphere barotropic belt is a broken block distribution: around July, the northern hemisphere subtropical high pressure belt by the continent of the heat of the low pressure (Asia Low Pressure) is cut off, and only retained in the oceans (Hawaii High Pressure); January around the time of the northern hemisphere subpolar low-pressure belt is cut off by a cold high pressure on the continent (Asian low pressure) and remains only over the ocean (Aleutian low pressure).

(E) Monsoon Circulation (most typical of eastern and southern Asia)

Region East Asia (East Asian Monsoon) South Asia, Southeast Asia and Southwest China (South Asian Monsoon)

Climate Type Temperate Monsoon Climate Subtropical Monsoon Climate Tropical Monsoon Climate

Main Causes Differences between Land and Sea Thermal Properties Seasonal Movements of Barometer Belts and Wind Belts

Wind Winter

Direction Summer Northwest Monsoon (source: Mongolia, Siberia) Northeast Monsoon (source: Asian continent)

Southeast Monsoon (source: Pacific Ocean) Southwest Monsoon (source: Indian Ocean)

V: Common Weather Systems

(1) Frontal Systems - Cold Fronts and Warm Fronts

Cold Front Warm Front

Cold Fronts

Concept Cold air masses actively moving toward warm air masses Warm air masses actively moving toward cold air masses

Weather Before Transit Single air mass control, clear weather Single air mass control, cold and clear temperatures

During Transit Cloudy skies, rain, snow, high winds, and cooling Continuous precipitation

After Transit Temperatures drop, air pressure rises, weather turns better Temperatures rise, air pressure falls, and the rain passes

Distribution of precipitation Precipitation generally occurs after fronts Precipitation only occurs before fronts

Weather examples Heavy rainfall in the summer in the north, cold waves in winter and spring, dust storms

(2) Low-pressure (cyclone), high-pressure (anticyclone) systems and the weather (in the northern hemisphere, for example)

Cyclone Anticyclone

Barometric pressure Low-pressure (the center of the pressure is low and the surrounding area is high) High pressure (high pressure center, low pressure all around)

Horizontal motion Convergence of the four circumferences to the center (north against south) Convergence of the center to the four circumferences (north against south)

Vertical motion Ascending Sinking

Weather More cloudy and rainy weather More sunny and dry weather

Examples Typhoon Vernal drought in Yangtze River Basin, "high and dry" weather in the North "weather"

(c) Fronts always appear at troughs of low pressure. For frontal cyclones, the east side is usually a warm front and the west side is usually a cold front.

2.4 Water Cycle and Ocean Currents

I: Water Cycle: the process by which water in nature moves through the four major circles in successive stages.

Source of energy: solar energy and gravitational energy

Types: including the great cycle between land and sea, inland cycle, and internal cycle at sea

Main links: including evaporation, water vapor transport, precipitation, seepage, and runoff (divided into surface and subsurface runoff).

Significance: ① contact the four circles, energy exchange and material migration between them, shaping the shape of the surface ② so that a variety of water bodies into each other, to maintain the dynamic balance of the global water ③ update the land water resources.

Human influence on the water cycle: the main surface runoff, and the small-scale evaporation, precipitation links to influence the construction of reservoirs, cross-basin water transfers and artificial rainfall is a common form.

Two: ocean currents

1 distribution of ocean currents

Northern Hemisphere: clockwise rotation east coast of the continent for the warm current

Southern Hemisphere: counterclockwise rotation west coast of the continent for the cold current

Northern Hemisphere in the middle and high latitudes of the sea area, the sub-polar circulation: counterclockwise rotation. The east coast of the continent is cold

The west coast of the continent is warm

Monsoon currents in the northern Indian Ocean: west to east in summer, clockwise; east to west in winter, counterclockwise

Westerly drifts: west to east around Antarctica for a week

2 The impact of ocean currents on geography

Warm currents: warming and humidifying. In the same latitude, the warm current passes through the sea area with higher temperature and more precipitation. The temperate oceanic climate of Western Europe is directly attributed to the North Atlantic Warm Current, and the Russian seaport of Murmansk

Climate The year-round frost-free climate is related to the North Atlantic Warm Current

Cold currents: cooling and humidity reduction. At the same latitude, cold currents pass through sea areas with cooler temperatures and less precipitation. Coastal cold currents play a role in the formation of desert environments along the west coast of Australia and the Pacific coast of Peru

Fisheries formed at the intersection of cold and warm currents: Hokkaido fishery, Newfoundland fishery, North Sea fishery

Marine life

Fisheries formed by upwelling currents: Peruvian fishery

Pollution of the marine environment: facilitates the diffusion of pollutants to speed up the purification of pollutants, but it also expands the scope of pollution

Navigation: downwind and upstream can increase the speed of sailing and save fuel

3.1 Changes in natural geographic elements and environmental changes

1 History of biological evolution: the emergence of the earth (4.6 billion years ago) → chemical evolution → the emergence of life (about 3 billion years ago) → biological evolution

(from low to high, simple to complex). Photosynthesis by green plants changed the nature of the atmosphere (anaerobic environment → aerobic environment). Stages of biological development (see table in Textbook P67)

2 Biological extinction: the end of the Paleozoic Era and the end of the Mesozoic Era are the two most important global periods of biological mass extinction. Causes: environmental changes, catastrophic events.

3 Human evolution and the environment: human beings are the product of natural geography, and at the same time can consciously adapt and transform nature. With the development of human civilization, especially since the industrial revolution, human activities have an increasing impact on the natural environment. Three major global environmental problems: increased greenhouse effect, leading to global warming; ozone layer depletion; acid rain problem.

3.2 Integration of the natural geographic environment

1 The natural geographic environment is an organic whole composed of the lithosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the biosphere, the soil circle, and the anthroposphere. Five elements of the natural geographic environment: climate, geomorphology (topography), hydrology, soil, biology (vegetation).

2 holistic: the elements of the geographic environment are interlinked, mutual constraints and interpenetration, forming an organic whole. Performance: ① elements of the geographic environment is not isolated development, each element is as part of the whole, and other elements of the interlinkages and interactions; ② changes in one element will lead to other elements and even the overall change (including the impact on other areas).

3 Soil: a terrestrial loose surface layer that is fertile and capable of growing plants. Fertility is an essential property of soil.

Soil-forming parent material: the material basis for soil formation and the initial source of mineral nutrients. It has an important influence on both the physical properties and chemical composition of the soil (inheritance relationship).

Climate: directly affects the soil's hydrothermal conditions and the nature and intensity of physical and chemical processes. For example, soil organic matter accumulates most under moderate hydrothermal conditions. (Black soil under temperate semi-moist environment is the most fertile soil in the world); Indirectly affects the formation and development of soil by influencing the weathering process of rocks, the morphology of landforms, and the activities of organisms. For example, the weathering crust is thickest under hot and humid conditions, and the soil layer is thick. Under dry or cold conditions, the weathering crust is thin and the soil layer is thin.

Biology: the source of soil organic matter, the most active factor in the process of soil formation, the level of soil fertility depends mainly on the amount of organic matter content. Without the participation of organisms (biological cycle), there will be no soil formation. (Soil-forming parent material → lower plant growth → primitive soil → higher plant growth → mature soil). In general, forest soils have less organic matter than grassland soils.

Topography: acts indirectly on soil through redistribution of matter and energy. Such as the vertical zonal distribution of soil. Steep slopes: surface material migration speed, difficult to develop deep soil. Flat areas: slow erosion of surface materials, stable climatic and biological conditions for the development of deep soils. Sunny slopes: good temperature conditions, but strong evaporation and poor moisture, and vice versa for shady slopes.

Human activities: positive impact-modification of natural soils into various kinds of cultivated soils; negative impact-soil degradation (soil erosion, salinization, desertification, and soil pollution, etc.)

3 The wholeness of the environment requires that the development and utilization of natural resources be accompanied by comprehensive considerations and countermeasures.

3.3 Geographical differentiation

1 Natural zone: a strip-like area with consistent natural attributes. Geographic differentiation has a certain degree of order and universality.

2 Distribution of natural zones: natural zones are defined by climate type.

3 Patterns of Distribution

Patterns of Divergence Main Factors of Divergence Geographic Location Patterns of Distribution Distinctive Regions

Latitudinal Zones Divergence Heat. Root cause: solar radiation Latitudinal position East-west extension,

North-south alternation Low and high latitudes

Longitudinal zonal divergence Moisture Land and sea position North-south extension,

East-west alternation Mid-latitudes

Vertical zonal divergence Heat and moisture vary with altitude. Altitude Horizontal extension, vertical alternation. Similar to latitudinal zonal differentiation Mountains at higher elevations. The lower the latitude and the higher the altitude, the richer the vertical natural zones in the mountains.

Local differentiation: smaller scale geographic differentiation, zonal distribution laws and non-zonal factors **** the same product. Influencing factors: local topography, local microclimate, differences in lithology and soil quality. Expression law: orderliness and repetition.

4.1 Influence of topography on the distribution of settlements:

1 Settlement: a place where human beings are engaged in production and life and live together, including a collection of houses and buildings, as well as a variety of facilities related to people's production and life. Settlements are divided into two major types: urban and rural.

2 distribution characteristics:

China's northern plains, the village scale is generally larger, more regimented, checkerboard pattern, the number of people living together is relatively large;

Southern hilly areas, the village scale is generally smaller, the spatial distribution of the relatively decentralized, the number of people living together is small; the river network of the plains of the density of the villages, the villages more in the form of a band.

Topography on the distribution of transportation routes

Layout of morphological direction

Plain high density net less restrictive, low cost

Mountainous areas low density line (mountainous areas in the shape of the "zigzag"), more along the valley extension

Technological advances in the layout of the topography of the transportation line restrictions continue to reduce. The limitations of topography on the layout of transportation routes have been continuously reduced by technological advances.

In short: choose favorable terrain, avoid unfavorable terrain, minimize the cost of the project, occupy less good land, and pay attention to the protection of ecology.

4.2 Impacts of Global Climate Change on Human Activities

1. Climate change: a long period of climate change in a particular place, region, or globally. The history of Earth's climate change is divided into three phases: the geological period; the historical period; and the modern period

2. Characteristics of Climate Change in Various Periods

Geological Period Historical Period Modern Period

Time Scale 10,000 years ago Nearly 10,000 years ago Nearly one or two hundred years ago

Characteristics The Great Glacial and Great Interglacial Periods alternated, and the Aurignacian, Carboniferous (Note: Ice ages and interglacials alternated during the Great Ice Age.) There were two large fluctuations - a warm period from 5000 to 1500 BC and a cold period since the 15th century. Fluctuating upward trend in global average temperature since 1861; two periods of greatest temperature increase since the 20th century: 1910-1945 and 1976-2000, with 1998 being the warmest year; significant changes in terrestrial precipitation, with the greatest changes at mid- and high-latitudes

3 Snow line: The lower boundary of the perennial snowpack, the height of the distribution depends mainly on conditions such as temperature, precipitation and topography - temperature and slope are positively correlated with the height of the snow line, and precipitation is negatively correlated with the height of the snow line.

Ice cap: huge thick body of ice covering various terrains, the higher the temperature, the smaller the ice cap area

4 Impacts of global climate change (mainly global warming):

① Global climate change itself is a change in resource conditions. It increases the difficulty of developing natural resources. ② Global climate change exacerbates natural disasters. ③ Global climate change will also lead to changes in the original ecosystem. There will be 1/3 of the habitats of plants and animals changed and a large number of species become extinct. ④ Global climate change will have a more significant impact on major production areas such as agriculture, forestry, pastoralism, and fisheries. Climate change affects agricultural yields, crop varieties, farming methods, and stability of production

5 Climate change expands the prevalence of certain epidemics and poses a risk to human health through extreme weather and climate events (e.g., El Ni?o, droughts, floods, heat waves, etc.).

4.3 Natural Resources and Human Activities

1 Natural Resources: a general term for the material and energy that exists in nature and is capable of generating economic value, as well as enhancing the current and future welfare of human beings under a certain period of time. (Must have both natural and economic attributes)

Characteristics of natural resources: finite, holistic, territorial, multi-purpose, social

2 Classification: climatic resources, land resources, water resources, biological resources, mineral resources. Except for mineral resources, which are non-renewable resources, the rest are renewable resources.

3 Historical Process of Natural Resource Utilization - Taking Coal as an Example

Pre-Coal Period Coal Period Post-Coal Period

Energy Era Firewood Era Coal Era Petroleum Era

Time Prior to the middle of the 18th Century Early 1900's to the Early 1960's After 1960's

Subjects Energy source Firewood, water power dominated Coal dominated Oil, natural gas dominated, diversified energy structure

4 Influence of natural resources on human activities

Agricultural Society Era - Human beings rely on the natural environment and natural resources to a great extent. Such as the distribution of the four ancient civilizations.

Industrial social era - a decisive influence on resource-based industries and industrial layout. For example, the development of cities such as Daqing and Anshan

Post-industrialization era - the relative decline in the role of natural resources and the rise in the status of acquired resources (synthetic raw materials, intellectual resources, information networks). Humanity's use of natural resources is becoming increasingly widespread, the depth of utilization is gradually expanding, and the dependence of industrial layout on natural resources is decreasing.

4.4 Hazards of Natural Disasters to Humanity

1 Natural Disasters: Natural Disasters are natural events capable of causing loss of life and property.

Classification: According to the causes and processes, natural disasters can be divided into: geological disasters (earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, mudslides, etc.)

Meteorological disasters (floods, droughts, rainstorms, cold tides, typhoons, etc.), biological disasters (pests and diseases, etc.), and marine disasters (tsunamis, etc.).

Characteristics of natural disasters: complexity, cyclicality, suddenness, multi-causal, mass occurrence, potential

2 Hazards of Natural Disasters: cause direct economic losses and casualties, and a variety of indirect losses, and even affect social stability and sustainable development. China is one of the world's most serious natural disasters. China's highest frequency and widest range of natural disasters are floods and droughts, in addition, the degree of damage caused by earthquakes is also very large.

3 Floods in China

(1) Major floods in China since the 1990s

Floods include two major types of floods and rain and floods, which often occur simultaneously.

(ii) The reasons for the frequent occurrence of floods in China

Climatic reasons: heavy rainfall, with seasonal,

frequent, high-intensity characteristics

China's eastern frontal rainfall push pattern (in a normal year):

April and May (E), the southern coast enters the rainy season;

June (D), the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River "Meiyu";

July and August (C), rainy in North and Northeast China;

September, the rain belt moves rapidly south;

October, the end of the rainy season on the mainland.

Other causes:

The geomorphological features of the watershed (low topography, poor drainage), vegetation distribution (forest cover)

Human activities: indiscriminate cultivation and deforestation, destroying vegetation, leading to soil erosion and siltation of rivers; enclosure of lakes to make farmland, leading to shrinkage of lakes.

Management measures: afforestation, restoration of natural vegetation, construction of reservoirs, river training, reinforcement of embankments, return of fields to lakes; non-engineering measures: construction of flood diversion and storage projects, strengthening of floodplain management, the establishment of early warning systems for disasters, the implementation of flood insurance, etc.