Traditional Culture Encyclopedia - Traditional stories - Formation and types of ceramics
Formation and types of ceramics
Ceramic component ceramics are materials and various products made of clay as the main raw material and various natural minerals through crushing, mixing, molding and calcination. Pottery and porcelain. The traditional concept of ceramics refers to all artificial industrial products with inorganic non-metallic minerals such as clay as raw materials. It includes various products made of clay or clay-containing mixture through mixing, molding and calcination. From the roughest earthenware to the finest exquisite ceramics, it belongs to its scope. Its main raw materials are silicate minerals (such as clay, timely, etc.). ) is taken from nature, so it belongs to the category of "silicate industry" together with glass, cement, enamel, refractory and other industries.
Ceramic manufacturing process flow
1. Clay kaolin is the best raw material for firing porcelain. For thousands of years, many exquisite ceramics have evolved from these humble porcelain clay. The first process of making porcelain: clay is to make porcelain clay into usable porcelain clay.
Second, the porcelain clay washed out by that pile of mud can't be used immediately. It should be stored and drawn separately in columns.
Third, draw a blank. Put the folded porcelain clay in a big turntable. By rotating the turntable, the porcelain clay is drawn into a porcelain blank by hand and a blank drawing tool.
Fourthly, the printed porcelain blank is only a prototype, and different molds need to be selected according to the shape to be made to print the porcelain blank into various shapes.
Fifth, the thickness of the blank just printed is uneven. It is necessary to trim and scrape the printed blank neatly and symmetrically through the trimming process.
6. Squeezing water is an essential process, that is, washing off the dust on the blank with clear water to prepare for the next processes such as drawing and glazing.
Seven, drawing blanks on blanks is a major feature of ceramic art. There are many kinds of blank paintings, some are freehand brushwork, and some are sketched with good drawing paper. No matter how you draw the blank, it is the crowning touch of ceramic technology.
Eight, the glazed porcelain blank is rough and dull, but it is completely different after glazing, smooth and bright: different glazing processes have completely different effects.
Nine, kiln fire for thousands of years, endless, porcelain blanks carefully carved by dozens of tools, fired at thousands of degrees in the kiln, just like an ugly duckling will become a beautiful swan.
After several days of firing, the porcelain blank in the kiln has turned into exquisite porcelain fragments and can't wait to stand out from the open kiln door.
Xi。 Repair of defects in finished porcelain. A perfect porcelain sometimes has a little flaw when it is fired. Repair can make the finished porcelain more perfect.
Development of ceramics
The invention of pottery is an important symbol of Neolithic Age in primitive society.
In China, the remains of early Neolithic pottery were discovered about 10000 years ago. The pottery fragments found at Nanzhuangtou site in xushui county, Hebei Province were identified as relics from 10800 to 9700. In addition, pottery fragments dating from 10000~7000 years ago were also found in Wannian County, Jiangxi Province, Pinpiyan, Guilin, Guangxi, and Qingtang, Yingde, Guangdong Province.
Magnetic mountain culture, named after the first discovery of 1973 in Cishan, Wu 'an, Hebei Province, was more than 7,900 years ago according to radiocarbon measurement. During the period of 1977, archaeologists found a cultural relic in Peiligang, Xinzheng, Henan Province, which was equivalent to the magnetic mountain culture era and had similar contents, so it was collectively called "Peiligang Culture in Cishan".
Peiligang culture in Cishan is earlier than Yangshao culture, and it is the representative of Neolithic culture in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The pottery of this culture mainly includes ding, jar, plate, bean, three-legged pot, three-legged pot, two-eared pot and so on. Most of the utensils are plain without words, and some pottery made of sand is decorated with patterns.
1973 Hemudu culture, first excavated in Hemudu, Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, was named about 7000 years ago, and a large number of pottery were also unearthed in this cultural site. The pottery of Hemudu culture is black pottery, which is simple in shape and popular in early days to depict patterns.
In the Neolithic site of Yangshao village in Mianchi county, Henan province and Banpo site in the suburb of Xi, Shaanxi province, a large number of painted pottery with exquisite craftsmanship and patterns were found. These two Neolithic sites belong to matriarchal social sites and have a history of more than 6,000 years.
With the continuous progress of society, the quality of pottery has gradually improved. By the Shang and Zhou dynasties, there had been a profession specializing in pottery production. During the Warring States period, various exquisite patterns and flowers and birds appeared on pottery. At this time, pottery began to use lead glaze to make the surface of pottery smoother and have a certain color.
During the Western Han Dynasty, glazed pottery technology began to spread widely. Glazes of various colors also began to appear in the Han Dynasty. One kind of pottery prevailed in the Tang Dynasty, with yellow, brown and green as the basic glaze colors. Later, people used to call this kind of pottery "Three Colors of Tang Dynasty". Tang Sancai is a kind of low-temperature glazed pottery. Adding different metal oxides into the colored glaze, after firing, various colors such as light yellow, ochre yellow, light green, dark green, sky blue, brown red and eggplant purple are formed, but most of them are yellow, brown and green. The appearance of tri-colored pottery in the Tang Dynasty marked that the types and colors of pottery began to become more colorful. The development of porcelain is universally acknowledged that porcelain was invented by China people. The invention of porcelain is based on the continuous development and perfection of pottery technology. White pottery in Shang dynasty was made of porcelain clay (kaolin), and the firing temperature was above 1000℃, which was the basis for the appearance of primitive porcelain. The successful firing of white pottery played a very important role in the transition from pottery to porcelain.
The "green glaze ware" found in Shang Dynasty and Western Zhou Dynasty sites obviously has the basic characteristics of porcelain. Their texture is thinner and harder than pottery, and their tires are mostly gray. The sintering temperature is as high as1100-1200℃, and the tire quality is basically sintered, with weak water absorption. Coat the surface of the device with a layer of lime glaze. But they are not exactly the same as porcelain. It is called "primitive porcelain" or "primitive celadon".
After the appearance of Shang Dynasty, primitive porcelain experienced changes and development from immaturity to maturity during 1600- 1700 years.
From the unearthed cultural relics, the porcelains made in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties are mostly celadon. These celadons are finely processed, hard and non-absorbent, and the surface is coated with a layer of cyan glass glaze. This high-level porcelain-making technology marks that China porcelain production has entered a new era.
China's white glazed porcelain sprouted in the Southern and Northern Dynasties and reached a mature stage in the Sui Dynasty. There were new developments in the Tang Dynasty. The firing temperature of porcelain reaches 1200℃, and the whiteness of porcelain reaches over 70%, which is close to the modern fine porcelain standard. This achievement laid the foundation for the development of underglaze and overglaze porcelain.
In Song Dynasty, the embryo quality, glaze color and manufacturing technology of porcelain were improved, and the firing technology of porcelain reached a fully mature level. Technically, there is a clear division of labor, which is an important stage in the development of China porcelain. There are many famous kilns in the Song Dynasty, including Yaozhou Kiln, Cizhou Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln, Longquan Kiln, Yue Kiln and Jian Kiln, as well as products such as Ru Kiln, Guan Kiln, Ge Kiln, Jun Kiln and Ding Kiln, which are known as the five famous kilns in the Song Dynasty, all of which have their own unique styles. Yaozhou kiln (Tongchuan, Shaanxi) has exquisite products, thin fetal bones and uniform glaze color; Cizhou Kiln (Pengcheng, Hebei) takes magnetic mud as the blank, so porcelain is also called porcelain. Cizhou Kiln mostly produces white porcelain with black flowers; Jingdezhen kiln products are thin, shiny, exquisite light-induced, and have high whiteness and transparency, which is one of the representative works of promoting porcelain in Song Dynasty. The products of Longquan kiln are mostly pink or turquoise, and the glaze color is gorgeous and bright; The porcelain fired in Yue Kiln is thin, delicate and beautiful. The black porcelain produced in Jian Yao is one of the famous porcelains in Song Dynasty, and its black glaze is as bright as lacquer. Ru kiln is the crown of the five famous kilns in Song Dynasty. The glaze color of porcelain is mainly light blue, and the color is clear and moist. Whether the official kiln exists has always been a controversial issue. General scholars believe that the official kiln is the official kiln in Bianjing, and the kiln site is in Bianjing to burn porcelain for the court. Where the Ge kiln is fired has always been a controversial issue. Based on the analysis of all kinds of data, the most likely firing place of Ge kiln is the same production as the official kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty; Jun kiln burns a lot of colored porcelain, and rouge, cyan and ink porcelain are also good. The porcelain produced by Ding Kiln is thin, shiny, moist and white as powder, which is called powder setting or white setting.
The development of glaze color of ancient Chinese ceramics is from unglazed to glazed, from monochromatic glaze to multicolored glaze, and then from underglaze color to overglaze color, and gradually develops to multi-color and bucket color of underglaze and overglaze color.
Colored porcelain is generally divided into three categories: underglaze, underglaze and underglaze. The colored porcelain painted on the green tire after glazing and fired in the kiln is called underglaze color (temperature1100-1340℃). Glazed porcelain fired in the kiln is glazed again and then fired at1100-1340℃ as the color in the glaze. Glazed porcelain fired in a kiln is repainted and then fired in a fire (600-800℃), which is called glazed porcelain. The famous blue and white porcelain in Ming Dynasty is an underglaze color.
Classification of Ceramics There are many kinds of ceramic products, and their chemical composition, mineral composition, physical properties and manufacturing methods are often close to each other, without obvious boundaries, but there are great differences in application. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize into several systems, and there are different opinions on detailed classification. So far, there is no unified classification method in the world. There are two commonly used classifications from different angles: (1) Classification according to different purposes 1. Household ceramics: such as tableware, tea sets, pots, pots, plates, dishes, bowls, etc.
2. Art (craft) ceramics: such as vases, sculptures, garden ceramics, utensils, furnishings, etc.
3. Industrial ceramics: refers to ceramic products used in various industries. It is divided into the following six aspects: ① building sanitary ceramics: such as bricks, drainage pipes, tiles and exterior wall tiles, which are sanitary and clean; ② Chemical (chemical) ceramics: all kinds of acid-resistant containers, pipes, towers, pumps, valves, acid-resistant bricks and ashes for chemical industry; ③ Electric porcelain: used as insulator on high and low voltage transmission lines in power industry. Motor bushing, pillar insulation insulator of low-voltage electrical appliances and lighting equipment, telecommunication insulator, radio insulator, etc. ④ Special ceramics: Special ceramic products used in various modern industries and cutting-edge science and technology, including high-alumina porcelain, magnesia porcelain, titanium-magnesium porcelain, zircon porcelain, lithium porcelain, magnetic porcelain and cermet. (2) According to the density of raw materials and green bodies, they can be divided into brick or terracotta, clay, stone products and semi-porcelain (130 relay), with raw materials from coarse to fine and green bodies from coarse to porous.
Coarse pottery is the most primitive and lowest-grade ceramic ware, generally made of fusible clay. In some cases, clinker or sand can be added to clay to reduce shrinkage. The firing temperature of these products varies greatly, depending on the nature and quantity of impurities contained in the chemical composition of clay. If the porosity of bricks and tiles made of it is too high, the frost resistance of the green body is not good, and the mortar is not easy to cross, so the water absorption should generally be kept between 5 ~ 15%. The color of the green body after firing depends on the content of colored oxides in clay and the firing atmosphere. When fired in the oxidation flame, it is mainly yellow or red, and when fired in reducing flame, it is mainly cyan or black.
The blue bricks in China's building materials are yellow or red clay containing fe2o 3, which is calcined by reducing flame when the fire is near, so that Fe2O3 is reduced to FeO and becomes cyan. Pottery can be divided into ordinary pottery and exquisite pottery. Ordinary pottery refers to products with porous coloring bodies such as pottery pots, jars, altars, urns and refractory bricks. The water absorption of the green body of fine pottery is still 4 ~ 12%, so it is transparent and opaque, and it is generally white with color. Glazes are mostly fusible glazes containing lead and boron. Compared with stoneware, there is less flux, the sintering temperature is not more than 1300℃, and the green body is not fully sintered; Compared with porcelain, it has lower requirements for raw materials, greater plasticity and lower firing temperature. It is not easy to deform, and can simplify the processes of product forming and filling. However, the mechanical strength and impact strength of fine pottery are less than porcelain and stoneware, and its glaze is softer than the above products. When the glaze layer is damaged, the porous body is easy to be polluted, which affects the hygiene.
Fine pottery can be divided into clay, calcareous, feldspar and clinker according to different body components. Clay pottery is close to ordinary pottery. Lime fine pottery uses limestone as flux, and its production process is similar to that of feldspar fine pottery, but its quality is not as good as that of feldspar fine pottery, so it has been rarely produced in recent years and replaced by feldspar fine pottery. Feldspar fine pottery, also known as hard fine pottery, takes feldspar as flux. It is the most perfect and widely used pottery. In modern times, many countries have used it to mass-produce daily tableware (cups, plates, etc.). ) and sanitary pottery instead of expensive porcelain. Hot material fine pottery is to add a certain amount of clinker to the fine pottery blank to reduce shrinkage and avoid waste. This kind of blank is mostly used for large and thick tire products (such as bathtub, washbasin, etc.). ) In ancient books in China, stoneware was called "stone tire porcelain". Its green body is dense and completely sintered, which is very close to porcelain. But there is no vitrification, and the water absorption rate is still below 2%. The green body is opaque and white, and most of them are allowed to develop color after firing. Therefore, the requirements for the purity of raw materials are not as high as porcelain, and raw materials are easy to obtain. Stoneware has high strength and good thermal stability, which is very suitable for modern mechanized washing, and can successfully survive the sudden change of temperature from refrigerator to oven. In the international market, due to the development of tourism and the socialization of diet, the sales of stoneware are larger than that of pottery.
The green body of semi-porcelain is close to porcelain, but it still has 3-5% water absorption after firing (the water absorption of real porcelain is below 0.5%), so its service performance is not as good as porcelain, but better than fine pottery.
Porcelain is a higher stage of ceramic development. Its characteristic is that the green body has been completely sintered and vitrified, so it is dense and impermeable to liquid and gas. The thin part of the tire is translucent and the cross section is shell-shaped. When you lick it with your tongue, it feels slippery and does not stick to your hands. Hard porcelain has the best performance among ceramics. Used to make high-grade daily utensils, electric porcelain, chemical porcelain, etc.
Soft porcelain has more flux, lower firing temperature, lower mechanical strength and lower thermal stability than hard porcelain, but it has high transparency and rich decoration, and is mostly used to make artistic display porcelain. As for sintered porcelain and bone porcelain, their firing temperature is similar to that of soft porcelain, and their advantages and disadvantages are similar to that of soft porcelain, so they should belong to the scope of soft porcelain. These two kinds of porcelain are difficult to produce (the plasticity and drying strength of the body are poor, and the deformation is serious when firing), so the production is not universal. Britain is a famous producer of cinerary porcelain, and Tangshan, China also produces cinerary porcelain.
Special ceramics are developed with the rapid development of modern electrical appliances, radio, aviation, atomic energy, metallurgy, machinery, chemistry and other industries, as well as cutting-edge science and technology such as computer, space technology and new energy development. The main raw materials used in these ceramics are no longer clay, feldspar and quartz, and some green bodies also use some clay or feldspar. However, pure oxides and raw materials with special properties are used, and their manufacturing processes and performance requirements are also different.
Ceramic terms blue and white:
Name of porcelain glaze. Proper names of white porcelain and celadon. A typical blue-and-white ware is made by coating cobalt on a porcelain blank, then applying transparent glaze, and firing at one time at high temperature. Blue and white are under glaze, so they belong to underglaze color. Blue and white porcelain is characterized by bright, fresh, elegant, generous and decorative, and has always been cherished by people at home and abroad. But also plays an extremely important role in the process of making porcelain in the world. Doucai: It is a combination of underglaze blue and white, underglaze red and underglaze multicolor. Doucai was created in Chenghua period of Ming Dynasty, which is a combination of underglaze color (blue and white) and underglaze color. Doucai is characterized by dynamic and static, sharp contrast, elegance and gorgeous. This kind of decoration shows rich expressive force and its characteristics. Underglaze red: Also known as underglaze red, it originated from the purple erythema glaze of Jun kiln in Song Dynasty. Can be decorated alone, can also be used with blue and red materials (this decoration is called blue and white underglaze red), and the underglaze red color is stable and heavy. Traditionally, in China, red often represents auspiciousness and wealth. The color of underglaze red is steady, simple, magnificent and simple, which are all factors people like. The characteristics after firing are calmness and enthusiasm. Pastel: also known as "ancient color", it is a variety of glaze color. The so-called glaze color is painted on the glazed surface of the fired blank and fired in a kiln at 600 -900 degrees Celsius. In the fifty-second year of Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty (17 13), the traditional glaze color in China was inspired and influenced by enamel, and the opaque white material of copper enamel was introduced, and the multi-level preparation technology of enamel was used for reference in the process, creating a new variety of "pastel" glaze color. This kind of white material is commonly known as "glass white". Due to the fusion of glass white and multicolored materials, various colors have been "powdered". Red becomes pink, green becomes light green, yellow becomes light yellow, and other colors become opaque light tones. By controlling its addition, a series of different shades can be obtained, giving people a pink and soft feeling, so this glaze color is called "pastel", and its expression technique has developed from flat filling to light and dark washing and dyeing; In style, its layout and brushwork have the characteristics of traditional Chinese painting. Judging from the artistic effect of decoration, it has the characteristics of beauty, elegance, prudence, simplicity and grandeur. Anything that can be expressed by painting, whether meticulous or freehand, can be expressed by pastel. Figures, flowers, birds, landscapes and so on drawn by this method distinguish darkness, depth and yin and yang, which increases the level and three-dimensional sense, thus forming elegant, fine, color-filling, washing and dyeing, firing and other technological steps. Overglaze color is an ancient color, which consists of red, yellow, green, blue, purple and other glass colors. According to the needs of decorative patterns, it is applied to the glaze, the raw materials and vanadium red are used to hook the lines on the porcelain tire, and the method of single-line flat coating is adopted, and then it is fired twice in the "color furnace" (firing temperature is 800-900℃). Because of its distinct red and green, few levels and clear color, it is called hard color. The antique colors are bright and crystal clear, the tone contrast is strong, the image is exaggerated, the lines are strong and powerful, and it has a strong national artistic style. There are many objects depicted in ancient paintings, including figures, landscapes, dragons, mandarin ducks, pines and cypresses, ganoderma lucidum, flowers and plants, etc. Ancient colored porcelain has been widely praised at previous world expositions. It is one of the outstanding traditions of Jingdezhen ceramic technology. In terms of age, it includes Daming Cai and Kangxi Cai; As far as color is concerned, there are three colors, five colors, red and green. Its technical features are single line and plane, strong lines, concise and vivid brushwork, strong color contrast, exaggerated image generalization, strong folk style and strong decoration. Xincai: Originally named Waicai, it appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and was a ceramic decoration method introduced from abroad. First, draw various pictures or patterns on the surface of white porcelain with colorful pigments, and then bake them in a color furnace. This kind of porcelain is called new colored porcelain. New colored porcelain is a new variety gradually developed in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. After the founding of People's Republic of China (PRC), after several improvements, new color decoration techniques have been enriched and developed, and combined with modern technology, it has become a widely used decorative form. At present, among the popular new colors in Jingdezhen, there are not only new colors with China freehand brushwork style, but also bright and bright brush flowers and spray colors, regular and beautiful lithography and silk-screen decals. After a series of reforms and innovations, the decorative style has formed the local characteristics of Jingdezhen ceramic art. New colors include decal, painting, brush painting, spray painting, printing, film transfer, gold painting and color addition, color printing, corrosion of gold color and electronic luster of various colors. It is characterized by rich colors, diverse decorations, beautiful blank shape, vivid patterns and novel styles. Colored glaze: a beautiful colored glaze made of raw materials containing nonferrous metals. Adding different metal oxides into the glaze as colorants and firing at a certain temperature and atmosphere will present different colors of glaze and become colored glaze. There are three classification methods: First, according to the firing temperature, it is divided into high-temperature glass (about 1300℃), medium-temperature glass (about 1200℃) and low-temperature glass (about 1000℃). If 1250℃ is the boundary, it can be divided into high and low. Second, according to the nature of the fired flame, it can be divided into two types: oxidized flame colored glaze and reducing flame colored glaze. Three, according to the appearance characteristics after firing, can be divided into monochromatic glaze, multicolor glaze (flower glaze), crack glaze, matt glaze, crystalline glaze, etc. The difference between colored glaze and ordinary colored glaze lies in the special firing process and formula of colored glaze. The glaze of colored glaze must be calcined at a high temperature above 1250℃ to show its unique charm, such as bright oil, rosy clouds and waterfalls. Glass is colorful and changeable. Cyan, such as bean green, shadow green, pink green, Longquan azure, etc. Red and purple, such as: Sacrificial Red, Lang Yaohong, Military Red, Rose Purple, Beauty Drunk, Glazed Red, Flaming Red, etc. Yellow, such as titanium yellow, ivory yellow, fish yellow, pink yellow, etc. Green, such as: green, peacock green, Venus green, brother green, etc. Black, such as black gold, rust, matte black. Others include crystalline glaze, Yaobian Flower Glaze, Tea Powder, Titanium Flower Glaze, crack glaze, Tang Sancai, Longquan Glaze, Wax Glaze, Jinsha Glaze, Color-changing Glaze, "Kaitai Three Kinds" and Blue Glaze. In addition, there are low-temperature colored glazes such as: western red, carmine, doll face, pink and Chili red; Ying Ge Green, Apple Green, Light Green, Caviar Green, Guapi Green, Furnace Green, Bitter Green and Water Green; Yellow, yellow, light yellow, caviar bronze, purple on a black background, etc. Comprehensive color: it is a new decorative form that combines various techniques. According to the requirements of the works, it uses different raw materials (over-glaze and under-glaze pigments), different expression techniques (sculpture, painting, colored glaze) and different firing techniques (high and low temperature) to achieve the overall design effect, making the porcelain decoration more perfect. Comprehensive color works can give full play to the characteristics of various techniques and the advantages of technical operation, and fully realize the creative intention. So it is an ideal way to decorate. Its characteristics are flexible and colorful, and various decorative forms set off each other, complement each other and compete for beauty, which enriches the artistic language of ceramics. Modern ceramic art: Creation becomes a space for creative subjects to exert their imagination and a medium to realize individual spiritual value. Let ceramic art, an ancient art, become the spiritual residence of modern people. Therefore, different from traditional pottery, modern pottery only takes clay as the material carrier, which embodies a modern artistic spirit. It advocates free creation and individuality, even though some works still retain the form of containers. But it is no longer for practical purposes. It broke through the original technical specifications, abandoned the delicate, regular and symmetrical classical aesthetic taste of traditional ceramics, and developed in the direction of freedom, imagination and humanistic spirit. What modern ceramic art creates is no longer the traditional artistic "bottles and jars", and even "bottles and jars" freely express the living experience of ceramists with the concept that "bottles and jars are art". Therefore, modern ceramic art belongs to the inner artistic creation of individual artists. It is separated from the matrix of ancient ceramics, forming an independent whole with the characteristics of pure art. Porcelain carving-Porcelain carving: It is a kind of decoration of ceramics. Generally speaking, it refers to an independent three-dimensional ceramic sculpture, which needs die printing, inlaying, hand carving, kneading, stacking, plastic molding, carving and other technological operations, and is made by high temperature firing. Due to the different operation methods, it can be roughly divided into round carving, relief carving, pile carving, carving, inlay carving and carving. The production of Jingdezhen porcelain sculpture can be traced back to the production of "lion" and "elephant" in 1000. Contemporary Jingdezhen porcelain carving has exquisite skills and complete techniques, including garden carving, pinch carving, carving and relief carving. Products are diverse, including Buddha statues, flowers, fish and insects, pavilions, animal toys and so on. Beautiful shape, both form and spirit, varied and lifelike; Rich decoration, including high-temperature glass and underglaze multicolor; Strong artistic expression, some solemn and vigorous, some elegant and fresh, some gorgeous and dazzling.
- Related articles
- Ten methods of Shaolin boxing
- How to play the rate of land of Bin Zhu_Martial Generals
- A survey report on college students' consumption view (urgently needed)
- How did Chu Opera come into being?
- What harm does divorce do to children?
- Measures of Jiangsu Province on Traffic Management of Sunan Canal
- Seek classic sentences of ancient poetry! If you answer well, you can add it! ! !
- What are blue chip stocks and what are their characteristics?
- The following statement about traditional finance and green finance is correct ( ).
- What's good to eat in Jounan